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Fri May 25 23:29:36 UTC 2018

Browse source 
patches/packages/glibc-zoneinfo-2018e-noarch-2_slack13.1.txz:  Rebuilt.
  Handle removal of US/Pacific-New timezone. If we see that the machine is
  using this, it will be automatically switched to US/Pacific.
This commit is contained in:
Patrick J Volkerding 2018-05-25 23:29:36 +00:00 committed by Eric Hameleers
parent b76270bf9e
commit 329684b59b
1009 changed files with 102537 additions and 135892 deletions
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3706
ChangeLog.txt
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1880
FILELIST.TXT
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22
GPG-KEY
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@ -1,11 +1,11 @@
security@slackware.com public key security@slackware.com public key
Type bits/keyID Date User ID pub 1024D/40102233 2003-02-26 [expires: 2038-01-19]
pub 1024D/40102233 2003-02-26 Slackware Linux Project <security@slackware.com> uid Slackware Linux Project <security@slackware.com>
sub 1024g/4E523569 2003-02-26 [expires: 2012-12-21] sub 1024g/4E523569 2003-02-26 [expires: 2038-01-19]
-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Version: GnuPG v1.2.1 (GNU/Linux) Version: GnuPG v1.4.12 (GNU/Linux)
mQGiBD5dIFQRBADB31WinbXdaGk/8RNkpnZclu1w3Xmd5ItACDLB2FhOhArw35EA mQGiBD5dIFQRBADB31WinbXdaGk/8RNkpnZclu1w3Xmd5ItACDLB2FhOhArw35EA
MOYzxI0gRtDNWN4pn9n74q4HbFzyRWElThWRtBTYLEpImzrk7HYVCjMxjw5A0fTr MOYzxI0gRtDNWN4pn9n74q4HbFzyRWElThWRtBTYLEpImzrk7HYVCjMxjw5A0fTr
@ -16,16 +16,16 @@ JIz4LAZ3+rI77rbn7gHHdp7CSAuV+QHv3aNanUD/KGz5SPSvF4w+5qRM4PfPNT1h
LMV8BACzxiyX7vzeE4ZxNYvcuCtv0mvEHl9yD66NFA35RvXaO0QiRVYeoUa5JOQZ LMV8BACzxiyX7vzeE4ZxNYvcuCtv0mvEHl9yD66NFA35RvXaO0QiRVYeoUa5JOQZ
gwq+fIB0zgsEYDhXFkC1hM/QL4NccMRk8C09nFn4eiz4dAEnwKt4rLCJKhkLl1DW gwq+fIB0zgsEYDhXFkC1hM/QL4NccMRk8C09nFn4eiz4dAEnwKt4rLCJKhkLl1DW
TSoXHe/dOXaLnFyLzB1J8hEYmUvw3SwPt//wMqDiVBLeZfFcdLQwU2xhY2t3YXJl TSoXHe/dOXaLnFyLzB1J8hEYmUvw3SwPt//wMqDiVBLeZfFcdLQwU2xhY2t3YXJl
IExpbnV4IFByb2plY3QgPHNlY3VyaXR5QHNsYWNrd2FyZS5jb20+iF8EExECAB8F IExpbnV4IFByb2plY3QgPHNlY3VyaXR5QHNsYWNrd2FyZS5jb20+iF8EExECAB8E
Aj5dIFQFCRJ3owAECwcDAgMVAgMDFgIBAh4BAheAAAoJEGpEY8BAECIzee0An3My CwcDAgMVAgMDFgIBAh4BAheABQJQPlypBQlBo7MrAAoJEGpEY8BAECIzjOwAn3vp
boalJ5nLePD0HCzMuf8Ix8gPAJ9lnU1wqNVGza0t89ACTurDoppQ2rkBDQQ+XSBV tb6K1v2wLI9eVlnCdx4m1btpAJ9sFt4KwJrEdiO5wFC4xe9G4eZl4rkBDQQ+XSBV
EAQA3VYlpPyRKdOKoM6t1SwNG0YgVFSvxy/eiratBf7misDBsJeH86Pf8H9OfVHO EAQA3VYlpPyRKdOKoM6t1SwNG0YgVFSvxy/eiratBf7misDBsJeH86Pf8H9OfVHO
cqscLiC+iqvDgqeTUX9vASjlnvcoS/3H5TDPlxiifIDggqd2euNtJ8+lyXRBV6yP cqscLiC+iqvDgqeTUX9vASjlnvcoS/3H5TDPlxiifIDggqd2euNtJ8+lyXRBV6yP
sBIA6zki9cR4zphe48hKpSsDfj7uL5sfyc2UmKKboSu3x7cAAwUD/1jmoLQs9bIt sBIA6zki9cR4zphe48hKpSsDfj7uL5sfyc2UmKKboSu3x7cAAwUD/1jmoLQs9bIt
bTosoy+5+Uzrl0ShRlv+iZV8RPzAMFuRJNxUJkUmmThowtXRaPKFI9AVd+pP44aA bTosoy+5+Uzrl0ShRlv+iZV8RPzAMFuRJNxUJkUmmThowtXRaPKFI9AVd+pP44aA
J+zxCPtS2isiW20AxubJoBPpXcVatJWi4sG+TM5Z5VRoLg7tIDNVWsyHGXPAhIG2 J+zxCPtS2isiW20AxubJoBPpXcVatJWi4sG+TM5Z5VRoLg7tIDNVWsyHGXPAhIG2
Y8Z1kyWwb4P8A/W2b1ZCqS7Fx4yEhTikiEwEGBECAAwFAj5dIFUFCRJ3owAACgkQ Y8Z1kyWwb4P8A/W2b1ZCqS7Fx4yEhTikiEwEGBECAAwFAlA+XL8FCUGjs2IACgkQ
akRjwEAQIjM1uwCdE7V4mPCqdby/nV699NxKX0iW/OsAniaVhEip8Ptff74Sv4JV akRjwEAQIjMsbQCgk59KFTbTlZfJ6FoZjjEmK3/xGR4AniYT+EdSdvEyRtZYkqWz
tb+Sth2l p1ayvO1b
=H5uu =tibb
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----- -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

9358
READ_DVD.TXT
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8
extra/source/wicd/README.SLACKWARE
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@ -13,9 +13,5 @@ Your user account will need to be a member of the 'netdev' group
in order to use wicd. in order to use wicd.
Note that urwid will need to be installed if you want to use the Note that urwid will need to be installed if you want to use the
curses client. curses client. Also, if you don't have kde installed, you won't
have a graphical sudo client available.
Also, if you don't have kde installed, you won't have a graphical
sudo client available; you might wish to consider ktsuss from
SlackBuilds.org.

1
extra/source/wicd/doinst.sh
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@ -33,4 +33,5 @@ fi
config etc/dbus-1/system.d/wicd.conf.new config etc/dbus-1/system.d/wicd.conf.new
config etc/rc.d/rc.wicd.new config etc/rc.d/rc.wicd.new
config etc/wicd/manager-settings.conf.new config etc/wicd/manager-settings.conf.new
config etc/logrotate.d/wicd.logrotate.new

23
extra/source/wicd/wicd-1.7.0-fix_EAP_fast_typo.diff
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@ -1,23 +0,0 @@
revno: 554
committer: Andrew Psaltis <ampsaltis@gmail.com>
branch nick: 1.6
timestamp: Mon 2010-03-29 13:19:08 -0400
message:
Fixed typo in EAP-fast template, re-resolving bug 261804.
=== modified file 'encryption/templates/eap'
--- encryption/templates/eap 2009-03-01 02:52:27 +0000
+++ encryption/templates/eap 2010-03-29 17:19:08 +0000
@@ -11,10 +11,10 @@
proto=RSN WPA
pairwise=CCMP TKIP
group=CCMP TKIP
- key-mgmt=WPA-EAP
+ key_mgmt=WPA-EAP
eap=FAST
identity="$_USERNAME"
password="$_PASSWORD"
phase1="fast_provisioning=1"
- pac-file="$_PAC_FILE"
+ pac_file="$_PAC_FILE"
}

30
extra/source/wicd/wicd-1.7.0-fix_script_bug.diff
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@ -1,30 +0,0 @@
revno: 553
committer: Andrew Psaltis <ampsaltis@gmail.com>
branch nick: 1.6
timestamp: Wed 2010-01-27 14:06:21 -0500
message:
Fixed bug in script macro expansion.
=== modified file 'wicd/networking.py'
--- wicd/networking.py 2010-01-15 04:02:10 +0000
+++ wicd/networking.py 2010-01-27 19:06:21 +0000
@@ -215,8 +215,8 @@
if self.pre_disconnect_script:
print 'Running pre-disconnect script'
misc.ExecuteScript(expand_script_macros(self.pre_disconnect_script,
- 'pre-disconnection', (mac,
- name)),
+ 'pre-disconnection',
+ mac, name),
self.debug)
iface.ReleaseDHCP()
iface.SetAddress('0.0.0.0')
@@ -229,7 +229,7 @@
print 'Running post-disconnect script'
misc.ExecuteScript(expand_script_macros(self.post_disconnect_script,
'post-disconnection',
- (mac, name)),
+ mac, name),
self.debug)
def ReleaseDHCP(self):

22
extra/source/wicd/wicd.SlackBuild
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@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
#!/bin/sh #!/bin/sh
# Copyright 2008-2010 Robby Workman Northport, AL, USA # Copyright 2008,2009,2010,2011,2012 Robby Workman Northport, AL, USA
# All rights reserved. # All rights reserved.
# #
# Redistribution and use of this script, with or without modification, is # Redistribution and use of this script, with or without modification, is
@ -21,8 +21,8 @@
# ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. # ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
PRGNAM=wicd PRGNAM=wicd
VERSION=${VERSION:-1.7.0} VERSION=${VERSION:-1.7.2.1}
BUILD=${BUILD:-2} BUILD=${BUILD:-1_slack13.1}
# Automatically determine architecture for build & packaging: # Automatically determine architecture for build & packaging:
if [ -z "$ARCH" ]; then if [ -z "$ARCH" ]; then
@ -51,19 +51,22 @@ rm -rf $PKG
mkdir -p $TMP $PKG mkdir -p $TMP $PKG
cd $TMP cd $TMP
rm -rf $PRGNAM-$VERSION rm -rf $PRGNAM-$VERSION
tar xvf $CWD/$PRGNAM-$VERSION.tar.bz2 || exit 1 tar xvf $CWD/$PRGNAM-$VERSION.tar.xz || exit 1
cd $PRGNAM-$VERSION || exit 1 cd $PRGNAM-$VERSION || exit 1
chown -R root:root . chown -R root:root .
# Fix a couple of bugs that are addressed in the upstream bzr repo
zcat $CWD/wicd-1.7.0-fix_EAP_fast_typo.diff.gz | patch -p0 --verbose || exit 1
zcat $CWD/wicd-1.7.0-fix_script_bug.diff.gz | patch -p0 --verbose || exit 1
python setup.py configure \ python setup.py configure \
--lib=/usr/lib${LIBDIRSUFFIX}/wicd \ --lib=/usr/lib${LIBDIRSUFFIX}/wicd \
--kdedir=/usr/share/autostart \ --kdedir=/usr/share/autostart \
--backends=/usr/lib${LIBDIRSUFFIX}/wicd/backends \ --backends=/usr/lib${LIBDIRSUFFIX}/wicd/backends \
|| exit 1 || exit 1
# Bypass the need for pybabel (thanks, dapal!)
for pofile in $(find po/ -type f -name "*.po") ; do
mkdir -p translations/$(basename ${pofile} .po)/LC_MESSAGES
msgfmt -o translations/$(basename ${pofile} .po)/LC_MESSAGES/wicd.mo ${pofile}
done
python setup.py install --root=$PKG || exit 1 python setup.py install --root=$PKG || exit 1
# Handle some Slackware defaults # Handle some Slackware defaults
@ -75,8 +78,9 @@ dhcp_client = 2
sudo_app = 2 sudo_app = 2
EOF EOF
# Don't clobber dbus config on upgrade # Don't clobber configs on upgrade
mv $PKG/etc/dbus-1/system.d/wicd.conf $PKG/etc/dbus-1/system.d/wicd.conf.new mv $PKG/etc/dbus-1/system.d/wicd.conf $PKG/etc/dbus-1/system.d/wicd.conf.new
mv $PKG/etc/logrotate.d/wicd.logrotate $PKG/etc/logrotate.d/wicd.logrotate.new
mv $PKG/etc/rc.d/rc.wicd $PKG/etc/rc.d/rc.wicd.new mv $PKG/etc/rc.d/rc.wicd $PKG/etc/rc.d/rc.wicd.new
# Compress the man pages and add a bit to the package docs # Compress the man pages and add a bit to the package docs

8
extra/wicd/README.SLACKWARE
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@ -13,9 +13,5 @@ Your user account will need to be a member of the 'netdev' group
in order to use wicd. in order to use wicd.
Note that urwid will need to be installed if you want to use the Note that urwid will need to be installed if you want to use the
curses client. curses client. Also, if you don't have kde installed, you won't
have a graphical sudo client available.
Also, if you don't have kde installed, you won't have a graphical
sudo client available; you might wish to consider ktsuss from
SlackBuilds.org.

BIN
isolinux/isolinux.boot
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80
misc/slackbook/html/TRADEMARKS.html
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@ -1,80 +0,0 @@
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="NEXT" title="Preface" href="book-preface.html" />
<link rel="STYLESHEET" type="text/css" href="docbook.css" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title></title>
</head>
<body bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF">
<div class="NAVHEADER">
<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" align="center">Slackware Linux Essentials</th>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="LEGALNOTICE"><a id="TRADEMARKS" name="TRADEMARKS"></a>
<p>Slackware Linux is a registered trademark of Patrick Volkerding and Slackware Linux,
Inc.</p>
<p>Linux is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds.</p>
<p>America Online and AOL are registered trademarks of America Online, Inc. in the United
States and/or other countries.</p>
<p>Apple, FireWire, Mac, Macintosh, Mac OS, Quicktime, and TrueType are trademarks of
Apple Computer, Inc., registered in the United States and other countries.</p>
<p>IBM, AIX, EtherJet, Netfinity, OS/2, PowerPC, PS/2, S/390, and ThinkPad are trademarks
of International Business Machines Corporation in the United States, other countries, or
both.</p>
<p>IEEE, POSIX, and 802 are registered trademarks of Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Inc. in the United States.</p>
<p>Intel, Celeron, EtherExpress, i386, i486, Itanium, Pentium, and Xeon are trademarks or
registered trademarks of Intel Corporation or its subsidiaries in the United States and
other countries.</p>
<p>Microsoft, IntelliMouse, MS-DOS, Outlook, Windows, Windows Media and Windows NT are
either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft Corporation in the United States
and/or other countries.</p>
<p>Netscape and the Netscape Navigator are registered trademarks of Netscape
Communications Corporation in the U.S. and other countries.</p>
<p>Red Hat, RPM, are trademarks or registered trademarks of Red Hat, Inc. in the United
States and other countries.</p>
<p>XFree86 is a trademark of The XFree86 Project, Inc.</p>
<p>Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their
products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this document, and
Slackware Linux, Inc. was aware of the trademark claim, the designations have been
followed by the &#8220;&trade;&#8221; or the &#8220;&reg;&#8221; symbol.</p>
</div>
<div class="NAVFOOTER">
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
<table summary="Footer navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="index.html"
accesskey="H">Home</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</body>
</html>

103
misc/slackbook/html/archive-files-bzip2.html
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@ -1,103 +0,0 @@
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<title>bzip2</title>
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="UP" title="Archive Files" href="archive-files.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="Archive Files" href="archive-files.html" />
<link rel="NEXT" title="tar" href="archive-files-tar.html" />
<link rel="STYLESHEET" type="text/css" href="docbook.css" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
</head>
<body class="SECT1" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084"
alink="#0000FF">
<div class="NAVHEADER">
<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" align="center">Slackware Linux Essentials</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a href="archive-files.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 15 Archive Files</td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="archive-files-tar.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="ARCHIVE-FILES-BZIP2" name="ARCHIVE-FILES-BZIP2">15.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt></a></h1>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt>(1) is an alternative compression program installed on
Slackware Linux. It uses a different compression algorithm from <tt
class="COMMAND">gzip</tt>, which results in some advantages and some disadvantages. The
main advantage for <tt class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt> is the compressed file size. <tt
class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt> will almost always compress better than <tt
class="COMMAND">gzip</tt>. In some instances, this can result in dramatically smaller
files. This can be a great advantage for people on slower modem connections. Also
remember, when downloading software from a public ftp server, it's generally good
netiquette to download the <tt class="FILENAME">.bz2</tt> files instead of the <tt
class="FILENAME">.gz</tt> files, as this results in less overhead for the generous people
hosting the server.</p>
<p>The disadvantage to <tt class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt> is that it is more CPU intensive
than <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt>. This means that bzipping a file will generally take
longer and will use more of the CPU than gzipping the file would. When considering which
compression program to use, you must weigh this speed vs. compressed size and determine
which is more important.</p>
<p>The usage of <tt class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt> is nearly identical to <tt
class="COMMAND">gzip</tt>, so not much time will be spent discussing it. Like <tt
class="COMMAND">gunzip</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">bunzip2</tt> is identical to <tt
class="COMMAND">bzip2 -d</tt>. The primary difference in practical usage is that <tt
class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt> uses the <tt class="FILENAME">.bz2</tt> extension.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">bzip2 <var
class="REPLACEABLE">filename</var></kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">bunzip2 <var
class="REPLACEABLE">filename.bz2</var></kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">bzip2 -9 <var
class="REPLACEABLE">filename</var></kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="NAVFOOTER">
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
<table summary="Footer navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top"><a href="archive-files.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="index.html"
accesskey="H">Home</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top"><a href="archive-files-tar.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top">Archive Files</td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="archive-files.html"
accesskey="U">Up</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top"><tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</body>
</html>

232
misc/slackbook/html/archive-files-tar.html
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@ -1,232 +0,0 @@
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<title>tar</title>
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="UP" title="Archive Files" href="archive-files.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="bzip2" href="archive-files-bzip2.html" />
<link rel="NEXT" title="zip" href="archive-files-zip.html" />
<link rel="STYLESHEET" type="text/css" href="docbook.css" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
</head>
<body class="SECT1" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084"
alink="#0000FF">
<div class="NAVHEADER">
<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" align="center">Slackware Linux Essentials</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a href="archive-files-bzip2.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 15 Archive Files</td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="archive-files-zip.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="ARCHIVE-FILES-TAR" name="ARCHIVE-FILES-TAR">15.3 <tt
class="COMMAND">tar</tt></a></h1>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt>(1) is the GNU tape archiver. It takes several files or
directories and creates one large file. This allows you to compress an entire directory
tree, which is impossible by just using <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt> or <tt
class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt>. <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> has many command line options,
which are explained in its man page. This section will just cover the most common uses of
<tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt>.</p>
<p>The most common use for <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> is to decompress and unarchive a
package that you've downloaded from a web site or ftp site. Most files will come with a
<tt class="FILENAME">.tar.gz</tt> extension. This is commonly known as a
&#8220;tarball&#8221;. It means that several files were archived using <tt
class="COMMAND">tar</tt> and then compressed using <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt>. You
might also see this listed as a <tt class="FILENAME">.tar.Z</tt> file. It means the same
thing, but this is usually encountered on older Unix systems.</p>
<p>Alternatively, you might find a <tt class="FILENAME">.tar.bz2</tt> file somewhere.
Kernel source is distributed as such because it is a smaller download. As you might have
guessed, this is several files archived with <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> and then
bzipped.</p>
<p>You can get to all the files in this archive by making use of <tt
class="COMMAND">tar</tt> and some command line arguments. Unarchiving a tarball makes use
of the <var class="OPTION">-z</var> flag, which means to first run the file through <tt
class="COMMAND">gunzip</tt> and decompress it. The most common way to decompress a
tarball is like so:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">tar -xvzf filename.tar.gz</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That's quite a few options. So what do they all mean? The <var class="OPTION">-x</var>
means to extract. This is important, as it tells <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> exactly
what to do with the input file. In this case, we'll be splitting it back up into all the
files that it came from. <var class="OPTION">-v</var> means to be verbose. This will list
all the files that are being unarchived. It is perfectly acceptable to leave this option
off, if somewhat boring. Alternatively, you could use <var class="OPTION">-vv</var> to be
very verbose and list even more information about each file being unarchived. The <var
class="OPTION">-z</var> option tells <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> to run <tt
class="FILENAME">filename.tar.gz</tt> through <tt class="COMMAND">gunzip</tt> first. And
finally, the <var class="OPTION">-f</var> option tells <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> that
the next string on the command line is the file to operate on.</p>
<p>There are a few other ways to write this same command. On older systems lacking a
decent copy of GNU <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt>, you might see it written like so:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">gunzip filename.tar.gz | tar -xvf -</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This command line will uncompress the file and send the output to <tt
class="COMMAND">tar</tt>. Since <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt> will write its output to
standard out if told to do so, this command will write the decompressed file to standard
out. The pipe then sends it to <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> for unarchiving. The
&#8220;-&#8221; means to operate on standard input. It will unarchive the stream of data
that it gets from <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt> and write that to the disk.</p>
<p>Another way to write the first command line is to leave off the dash before the
options, like so:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">tar xvzf filename.tar.gz</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You might also encounter a bzipped archive. The version of <tt
class="COMMAND">tar</tt> that comes with Slackware Linux can handle these the same as
gzipped archives. Instead of the <var class="OPTION">-z</var> command line option, you'd
use <var class="OPTION">-j</var>:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">tar -xvjf filename.tar.bz2</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>It is important to note that <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> will place the unarchived
files in the current directory. So, if you had an archive in <tt
class="FILENAME">/tmp</tt> that you wanted to decompress into your home directory, there
are a few options. First, the archive could be moved into your home directory and then
run through <tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt>. Second, you could specify the path to the
archive file on the command line. Third, you can use the <var class="OPTION">-C</var>
option to &#8220;explode&#8221; the tarball in a specified directory.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd $HOME</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cp /tmp/filename.tar.gz .</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">tar -xvzf filename.tar.gz</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd $HOME</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">tar -xvzf /tmp/filename.tar.gz</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">tar -xvzf /tmp/filename.tar.gz -C $HOME</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>All the above statements are equivalent. In each case, the archive is unpacked inside
your home directory and the original uncompressed archive is left in place.</p>
<p>So what good is being able to uncompress these archives if you can't make them? Well,
<tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt> handles that too. In most cases it's as easy as removing the
&#8220;<var class="OPTION">-x</var>&#8221; option and replacing it with the &#8220;<var
class="OPTION">-c</var>&#8221; option.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">tar -cvzf filename.tar.gz .</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In this command line, the <var class="OPTION">-c</var> option tells <tt
class="COMMAND">tar</tt> to create an archive, while the <var class="OPTION">-z</var>
option runs the resulting archive file through <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt> to compress
it. <tt class="FILENAME">filename.tar.gz</tt> is the file that you want to create.</p>
<p>Specifying the &#8220;<var class="OPTION">-f</var>&#8221; option isn't always
necessary, but is typically good practice anyway. Without it, <tt
class="COMMAND">tar</tt> writes to standard output, which is usually desired for piping
<tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt>'s output to another program, like so.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">tar -cv filename.tar . | gpg --encrypt</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That command creates an non-compressed tar archive of the current directory, pipes the
tarball through <tt class="COMMAND">gpg</tt> which encrypts and compresses the tarball,
making it realistically impossible to read by anyone other than the person knowing the
secret key.</p>
</div>
<div class="NAVFOOTER">
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
<table summary="Footer navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top"><a href="archive-files-bzip2.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="index.html"
accesskey="H">Home</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top"><a href="archive-files-zip.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top"><tt class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt></td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="archive-files.html"
accesskey="U">Up</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top"><tt class="COMMAND">zip</tt></td>
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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<title>zip</title>
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="UP" title="Archive Files" href="archive-files.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="tar" href="archive-files-tar.html" />
<link rel="NEXT" title="Vi" href="vi.html" />
<link rel="STYLESHEET" type="text/css" href="docbook.css" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
</head>
<body class="SECT1" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084"
alink="#0000FF">
<div class="NAVHEADER">
<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" align="center">Slackware Linux Essentials</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a href="archive-files-tar.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 15 Archive Files</td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="vi.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="ARCHIVE-FILES-ZIP" name="ARCHIVE-FILES-ZIP">15.4 <tt
class="COMMAND">zip</tt></a></h1>
<p>Finally, there are two utilities that can be used on zip files. These are very common
in the Windows world, so Linux has programs to deal with them. The compression program is
called <tt class="COMMAND">zip</tt>(1), and the decompression program is called <tt
class="COMMAND">unzip</tt>(1).</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">zip foo *</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will create the file <tt class="FILENAME">foo.zip</tt>, which will contain all
the files in the current directory. <tt class="COMMAND">zip</tt> will add the <tt
class="FILENAME">.zip</tt> extension automatically, so there's no need to include that in
the file name. You can also recurse through the current directory, zipping up any
directories that are also laying around:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">zip -r foo *</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Decompressing files is easy, as well.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">unzip foo.zip</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will extract all the files in the file <tt class="FILENAME">foo.zip</tt>,
including any directories in the archive.</p>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">zip</tt> utilities have several advanced options for creating
self-extracting archives, leaving out files, controlling compressed file size, printing
out what will happen, and much more. See the man pages for <tt class="COMMAND">zip</tt>
and <tt class="COMMAND">unzip</tt> to find out how to use these options.</p>
</div>
<div class="NAVFOOTER">
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
<table summary="Footer navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top"><a href="archive-files-tar.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="index.html"
accesskey="H">Home</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top"><a href="vi.html" accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top"><tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt></td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="archive-files.html"
accesskey="U">Up</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top">Vi</td>
</tr>
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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<title>Archive Files</title>
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="Keeping Current" href="security-current.html" />
<link rel="NEXT" title="bzip2" href="archive-files-bzip2.html" />
<link rel="STYLESHEET" type="text/css" href="docbook.css" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
</head>
<body class="CHAPTER" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084"
alink="#0000FF">
<div class="NAVHEADER">
<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" align="center">Slackware Linux Essentials</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a href="security-current.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom"></td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="archive-files-bzip2.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="ARCHIVE-FILES" name="ARCHIVE-FILES"></a>Chapter 15 Archive Files</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>15.1 <a href="archive-files.html#ARCHIVE-FILES-GZIP"><tt
class="COMMAND">gzip</tt></a></dt>
<dt>15.2 <a href="archive-files-bzip2.html"><tt class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt></a></dt>
<dt>15.3 <a href="archive-files-tar.html"><tt class="COMMAND">tar</tt></a></dt>
<dt>15.4 <a href="archive-files-zip.html"><tt class="COMMAND">zip</tt></a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="ARCHIVE-FILES-GZIP" name="ARCHIVE-FILES-GZIP">15.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">gzip</tt></a></h1>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt>(1) is the GNU compression program. It takes a single
file and compresses it. The basic usage is as follows:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">gzip <var
class="REPLACEABLE">filename</var></kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The resulting file will be named <tt class="FILENAME"><var
class="REPLACEABLE">filename</var>.gz</tt> and will usually be smaller than the input
file. Note that <tt class="FILENAME">filename.gz</tt> will replace <tt
class="FILENAME">filename</tt>. This means that <tt class="FILENAME">filename</tt> will
no longer exist, even though a gzipped copy will. Regular text files will compress
nicely, while jpeg images, mp3s, and other such files will not compress too well as they
are already compressed. This basic usage is a balance of final file size and compression
time. The maximum compression can be achieved like so:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">gzip -9 <var
class="REPLACEABLE">filename</var></kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will take a longer time to compress the file, but the result will be as small as
<tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt> can make it. Using lower values for the command line option
will cause it to compress faster, but the file will not be as compressed.</p>
<p>Decompressing gzipped files can be done using two commands, which are really just the
same program. <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt> will decompress any file with a recognized
file extension. A recognized extension can be any of the following: <tt
class="FILENAME">.gz</tt>, <tt class="FILENAME">-gz</tt>, <tt class="FILENAME">.z</tt>,
<tt class="FILENAME">-z</tt>, <tt class="FILENAME">.Z</tt>, or <tt
class="FILENAME">-Z</tt>. The first method is to call <tt class="COMMAND">gunzip</tt>(1)
on a file, like so:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">gunzip <var
class="REPLACEABLE">filename.gz</var></kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will leave a decompressed version of infile in the current directory, and the <tt
class="FILENAME">.gz</tt> extension will be stripped from the filename. <tt
class="COMMAND">gunzip</tt> is really part of <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt> and is
identical to <tt class="COMMAND">gzip -d</tt>. As such, <tt class="COMMAND">gzip</tt> is
often pronounced <tt class="COMMAND">gunzip</tt>, as that name just sounds cooler.
:^)</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="NAVFOOTER">
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
<table summary="Footer navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top"><a href="security-current.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="index.html"
accesskey="H">Home</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top"><a href="archive-files-bzip2.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top">Keeping Current</td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top"><tt class="COMMAND">bzip2</tt></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</body>
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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
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<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<title>DNS Tools</title>
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="UP" title="Basic Network Commands" href="basic-network-commands.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="traceroute" href="basic-network-commands-traceroute.html" />
<link rel="NEXT" title="finger" href="basic-network-commands-finger.html" />
<link rel="STYLESHEET" type="text/css" href="docbook.css" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
</head>
<body class="SECT1" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084"
alink="#0000FF">
<div class="NAVHEADER">
<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" align="center">Slackware Linux Essentials</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a
href="basic-network-commands-traceroute.html" accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 13 Basic Network Commands</td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a
href="basic-network-commands-finger.html" accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-DNS"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-DNS">13.3 DNS Tools</a></h1>
<p>Domain Name Service (DNS for short) is that magical protocol that allows your computer
to turn meaningless domain names like www.slackware.com into meaningful IP address like
<tt class="HOSTID">64.57.102.34</tt>. Computers can't route packets to www.slackware.com,
but they can route packets to that domain name's IP address. This gives us a convenient
way to remember machines. Without DNS we'd have to keep a mental database of just what IP
address belongs to what computer, and that's assuming the IP address doesn't change.
Clearly using names for computers is better, but how do we map names to IP addresses?</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4475" name="AEN4475">13.3.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">host</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">host</tt>(1) can do this for us. <tt class="COMMAND">host</tt> is
used to map names to IP addresses. It is a very quick and simple utility without a lot of
functions.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">host www.slackware.com</kbd>
www.slackware.com is an alias for slackware.com.
slackware.com has address 64.57.102.34
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>But let's say for some reason we want to map an IP address to a domain name; what
then?</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4487" name="AEN4487">13.3.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">nslookup</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">nslookup</tt> is a tried and true program that has weathered the
ages. <tt class="COMMAND">nslookup</tt> has been deprecated and may be removed from
future releases. There is not even a man page for this program.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">nslookup 64.57.102.34</kbd>
Note: nslookup is deprecated and may be removed from future releases.
Consider using the `dig' or `host' programs instead. Run nslookup with
the `-sil[ent]' option to prevent this message from appearing.
Server: 192.168.1.254
Address: 192.168.1.254#53
Non-authoritative answer:
www.slackware.com canonical name = slackware.com.
Name: slackware.com
Address: 64.57.102.34
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4496" name="AEN4496">13.3.3 <tt
class="COMMAND">dig</tt></a></h2>
<p>The meanest dog in the pound, the domain information groper, <tt
class="COMMAND">dig</tt>(1) for short, is the go-to program for finding DNS information.
<tt class="COMMAND">dig</tt> can grab just about anything from a DNS server including
reverse lookups, A, CNAME, MX, SP, and TXT records. <tt class="COMMAND">dig</tt> has many
command line options and if you're not familiar with it you should read through it's
extensive man page.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">dig @192.168.1.254 www.slackware.com mx</kbd>
; &lt;&lt;&#62;&#62; DiG 9.2.2 &lt;&lt;&#62;&#62; @192.168.1.254 www.slackware.com mx
;; global options: printcmd
;; Got answer:
;; -&#62;&#62;HEADER&lt;&lt;- opcode: QUERY, status: NOERROR, id: 26362
;; flags: qr rd ra; QUERY: 1, ANSWER: 2, AUTHORITY: 2, ADDITIONAL: 2
;; QUESTION SECTION:
;www.slackware.com. IN MX
;; ANSWER SECTION:
www.slackware.com. 76634 IN CNAME slackware.com.
slackware.com. 86400 IN MX 1 mail.slackware.com.
;; AUTHORITY SECTION:
slackware.com. 86400 IN NS ns1.cwo.com.
slackware.com. 86400 IN NS ns2.cwo.com.
;; ADDITIONAL SECTION:
ns1.cwo.com. 163033 IN A 64.57.100.2
ns2.cwo.com. 163033 IN A 64.57.100.3
;; Query time: 149 msec
;; SERVER: 192.168.1.254#53(192.168.1.254)
;; WHEN: Sat Nov 6 16:59:31 2004
;; MSG SIZE rcvd: 159
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This should give you an idea how <tt class="COMMAND">dig</tt> works.
&#8220;@192.168.1.254&#8221; specifies the dns server to use.
&#8220;www.slackware.com&#8221; is the domain name I am performing a lookup on, and
&#8220;mx&#8221; is the type of lookup I am performing. The above query tells me that
e-mail to <tt class="HOSTID">www.slackware.com</tt> will instead be sent to <tt
class="HOSTID">mail.slackware.com</tt> for delivery.</p>
</div>
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<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a href="basic-network-commands-ssh.html"
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL">13.7 email</a></h1>
<p>Electronic mail is one of the most popular things one can do on the Internet. In 1998,
it was reported that more electronic mail was sent than regular mail. It is indeed common
and useful.</p>
<p>Under Slackware, we provide a standard mail server, and several mail clients. All of
the clients discussed below are text-based. A lot of Windows users may be against this,
but you will find that a text based client is very convenient, especially when checking
mail remotely. Fear not, there are many graphical e-mail clients such as KDE's Kmail. If
you wish to use one of those check its help menu.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-PINE"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-PINE">13.7.1 <tt class="COMMAND">pine</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">pine</tt>(1) is not <tt class="COMMAND">elm</tt>. Or so the saying
goes. The University of Washington created their program for Internet news and email out
of a need for an easy mail reader for their students. <tt class="COMMAND">pine</tt> is
one of the most popular email clients in use today and is available for nearly every
flavor of Unix and even Windows.</p>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-PINE"
name="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-PINE"></a>
<p><b>Figure 13-2. The Pine main menu</b></p>
<p><img src="basic-network-commands/pine.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>You will see a menu of commands and a row of command keys at the bottom. <tt
class="COMMAND">pine</tt> is indeed a complex program, so we will not discuss every
feature about it here.</p>
<p>To see what's in your inbox, type <kbd class="USERINPUT">i</kbd>. Your messages are
listed with their date, author, and subject. Highlight the message you want and press
<kbd class="USERINPUT">enter</kbd> to view it. Pressing <kbd class="USERINPUT">r</kbd>
will start a reply to the message. Once you have written the response, type <b
class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">X</b> to send it. You can press <kbd
class="USERINPUT">i</kbd> to get back to the message listing.</p>
<p>If you want to delete a message, press <kbd class="USERINPUT">d</kbd>. It will mark
the highlighted message for deletion. <tt class="COMMAND">pine</tt> deletes the mail when
you exit the program. <tt class="COMMAND">pine</tt> also lets you store your mail in
folders. You can get a listing of folders by pressing <kbd class="USERINPUT">l</kbd>. At
the message listing, press <kbd class="USERINPUT">s</kbd> to save it to another folder.
It will ask for the folder name to write the message to.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">pine</tt> offers many, many features; you should definitely have a
look at the man page for more information. It will contain the latest information about
the program.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-ELM"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-ELM">13.7.2 <tt class="COMMAND">elm</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">elm</tt>(1) is another popular text-based email client. Though not
quite as user friendly as <tt class="COMMAND">pine</tt>, it's definitely been around a
lot longer.</p>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-ELM"
name="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-ELM"></a>
<p><b>Figure 13-3. Elm main screen</b></p>
<p><img src="basic-network-commands/elm.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>By default, you are placed in your inbox. The messages are listed with the message
number, date, sender, and subject. Use the arrow keys to highlight the message you want.
Press <kbd class="USERINPUT">Enter</kbd> to read the message.</p>
<p>To compose a new message, type <kbd class="USERINPUT">m</kbd> at the main screen. The
<kbd class="USERINPUT">d</kbd> key will flag a message for deletion. And the <kbd
class="USERINPUT">r</kbd> key will reply to the current message you are reading. All of
these keys are displayed at the bottom of the screen with a prompt.</p>
<p>The man page discusses <tt class="COMMAND">elm</tt> in more detail, so you will
probably want to consult that before using <tt class="COMMAND">elm</tt>.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-MUTT"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-MUTT">13.7.3 <tt class="COMMAND">mutt</tt></a></h2>
<p>&#8220;All mail clients suck. This one just sucks less.&#8221; <tt
class="COMMAND">mutt</tt>'s original interface was based on <tt class="COMMAND">elm</tt>
with added features found in other popular mailclients, resulting in a hybrid mutt.</p>
<p>Some of <tt class="COMMAND">mutt</tt>'s features include:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>color support</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>message threading</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>MIME and PGP/MIME support</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>pop3 and imap support</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>support for multiple mailbox formats (mbox, MMDF, MH, maildir)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">highly</i></span> customizable</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-MUTT"
name="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-MUTT"></a>
<p><b>Figure 13-4. Mutt main screen</b></p>
<p><img src="basic-network-commands/mutt.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>if you're looking for a mail client that will let you be in total control over
everything, then you will like <tt class="COMMAND">mutt</tt>. all the default settings
can be customized, keybindings can be changed. if you like to add a macro, you can.</p>
<p>you probably want to take a look at the <tt class="FILENAME">muttrc</tt> manpage,
which will tell you how to configure everything. or take a look at the included example
<tt class="FILENAME">muttrc</tt> file.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-NAIL"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-EMAIL-NAIL">13.7.4 <tt class="COMMAND">nail</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">nail</tt>(1) is a command line driven mail client. It is very
primitive and offers pretty much nothing in the way of user interfaces. However, mailx is
handy for times when you need to quickly mail something, scripting a bulk mailer, testing
your MTA installation or something similar. Note that Slackware creates symbolic links to
<tt class="COMMAND">nail</tt> at <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/bin/mail</tt> and <tt
class="FILENAME">/usr/bin/mailx</tt>. Any of these three commands executes the same
program. In fact, you will most likely see <tt class="COMMAND">nail</tt> referred to as
<tt class="COMMAND">mail</tt>.</p>
<p>The basic command line is:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">mailx &lt;subject&gt; &lt;to-addr&gt;</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">mailx</tt> reads the message body from standard input. So you can
cat a file into this command to mail it, or you can just type text and hit <b
class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">D</b> when finished with the message.</p>
<p>Here is an example of mailing a program source file to another person.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">cat randomfunc.c | mail -s "Here's that function" asdf@example.net</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The man page explains more of what <tt class="COMMAND">nail</tt> can do, so you will
probably want to have a look at that before using it.</p>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-FINGER"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-FINGER">13.4 <tt class="COMMAND">finger</tt></a></h1>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">finger</tt>(1) will retrieve information about the specified user.
You give finger a username or an email address and it will try to contact the necessary
server and retrieve the username, office, telephone number, and other pieces of
information. Here is an example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">finger johnc@idsoftware.com</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">finger</tt> can return the username, mail status, phone numbers,
and files referred to as &#8220;dot plan&#8221; and &#8220;dot project&#8221;. Of course,
the information returned varies with each <tt class="COMMAND">finger</tt> server. The one
included with Slackware returns the following information by default:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Username</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Room number</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Home phone number</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Work phone number</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Login status</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Email status</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Contents of the <tt class="FILENAME">.plan</tt> file in the user's home directory</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Contents of the <tt class="FILENAME">.project</tt> file in the user's home
directory</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>The first four items can be set with the <tt class="COMMAND">chfn</tt> command. It
stores those values in the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt> file. To change the
information in your <tt class="FILENAME">.plan</tt> or <tt class="FILENAME">.project</tt>
file, just edit them with your favorite text editor. They must reside in your home
directory and must be called <tt class="FILENAME">.plan</tt> and <tt
class="FILENAME">.project</tt>.</p>
<p>Many users <tt class="COMMAND">finger</tt> their own account from a remote machine to
quickly see if they have new email. Or, you can see a user's plan or current project.</p>
<p>Like many commands, <tt class="COMMAND">finger</tt> has options. Check the man page
for more information on what special options you can use.</p>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-FTP"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-FTP">13.9 FTP Clients</a></h1>
<p>FTP stands for the File Transfer Protocol. It allows you to send and receive files
between two computers. There is the FTP server and the FTP client. We discuss the client
in this section.</p>
<p>For the curious, the &#8220;client&#8221; is you. The &#8220;server&#8221; is the
computer that answers your FTP request and lets you login. You will download files from
and upload files to the server. The client cannot accept FTP connections, it can only
connect to servers.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4871" name="AEN4871">13.9.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">ftp</tt></a></h2>
<p>To connect to an FTP server, simply run the <tt class="COMMAND">ftp</tt>(1) command
and specify the host:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ftp &lt;hostname&gt; [port]</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If the host is running an FTP server, it will ask for a username and password. You can
log in as yourself or as &#8220;anonymous&#8221;. Anonymous FTP sites are very popular
for software archives. For example, to get Slackware Linux via FTP, you must use
anonymous FTP.</p>
<p>Once connected, you will be at the <var class="LITERAL">ftp&gt;</var> prompt. There
are special commands for FTP, but they are similar to other standard commands. The
following shows some of the basic commands and what they do:</p>
<div class="TABLE"><a id="AEN4883" name="AEN4883"></a>
<p><b>Table 13-1. <tt class="COMMAND">ftp</tt> commands</b></p>
<table border="0" frame="void" class="CALSTABLE">
<col width="1*" />
<col width="3*" />
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Command</th>
<th>Purpose</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt></td>
<td>List files</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">cd &lt;dirname&gt;</tt></td>
<td>Change directory</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">bin</tt></td>
<td>Set binary transfer mode</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">ascii</tt></td>
<td>Set ASCII transfer mode</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">get &lt;filename&gt;</tt></td>
<td>Download a file</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">put &lt;filename&gt;</tt></td>
<td>Upload a file</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">hash</tt></td>
<td>Toggle hash mark stats indicator</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">tick</tt></td>
<td>Toggle byte counter indicator</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">prom</tt></td>
<td>Toggle interactive mode for downloads</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">mget &lt;mask&gt;</tt></td>
<td>Download a file or group of files; wildcards are allowed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">mput &lt;mask&gt;</tt></td>
<td>Upload a file or group of files; wildcards are allowed</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">quit</tt></td>
<td>Log off the FTP server</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p>You can also use some of the following commands which are quite self-explanatory: <tt
class="COMMAND">chmod</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">delete</tt>, <tt
class="COMMAND">rename</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">rmdir</tt>. For a complete list of all
commands and their meaning, just type <kbd class="USERINPUT">help</kbd> or <kbd
class="USERINPUT">?</kbd> and you'll see a complete listing on screen.</p>
<p>FTP is a fairly simple program to use, but lacks the user interface that many of us
are used to nowadays. The man page discusses some of the command line options for <tt
class="COMMAND">ftp</tt>(1).</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
ftp&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls *.TXT</kbd>
200 PORT command successful.
150 Opening ASCII mode data connection for /bin/ls.
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 18606 Apr 6 2002 BOOTING.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 10518 Jun 13 2002 COPYRIGHT.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 602 Apr 6 2002 CRYPTO_NOTICE.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 32431 Sep 29 02:56 FAQ.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 499784 Mar 3 19:29 FILELIST.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 241099 Mar 3 19:12 PACKAGES.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 12339 Jun 19 2002 README81.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 14826 Jun 17 2002 SPEAKUP_DOCS.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 15434 Jun 17 2002 SPEAK_INSTALL.TXT
-rw-r--r-- 1 root 100 2876 Jun 17 2002 UPGRADE.TXT
226 Transfer complete.
ftp&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">tick</kbd>
Tick counter printing on (10240 bytes/tick increment).
ftp&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">get README81.TXT</kbd>
local: README81.TXT remote: README81.TXT
200 PORT command successful.
150 Opening BINARY mode data connection for README81.TXT (12339 bytes).
Bytes transferred: 12339
226 Transfer complete.
12339 bytes received in 0.208 secs (58 Kbytes/sec)
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-FTP-NCFTP"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-FTP-NCFTP">13.9.2 <tt class="COMMAND">ncftp</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">ncftp</tt>(1) (pronounced "Nik-F-T-P") is an alternative to the
traditional ftp client that comes with Slackware. It is still a text-based program, but
offers many advantages over <tt class="COMMAND">ftp</tt>, including:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Tab completion</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Bookmarks file</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>More liberal wildcard uses</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Command history</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>By default, <tt class="COMMAND">ncftp</tt> will try to log in anonymously to the
server you specify. You can force <tt class="COMMAND">ncftp</tt> to present a login
prompt with the &#8220;<var class="OPTION">-u</var>&#8221; option. Once logged in, you
can use the same commands as in <tt class="COMMAND">ftp</tt>, only you'll notice a nicer
interface, one that works more like <tt class="COMMAND">bash</tt>.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
ncftp /pub/linux/slackware &#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd slackware-current/</kbd>
Please read the file README81.TXT
it was last modified on Wed Jun 19 16:24:21 2002 - 258 days ago
CWD command successful.
ncftp ...ware/slackware-current &#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls</kbd>
BOOTING.TXT FAQ.TXT bootdisks/
CHECKSUMS FILELIST.TXT extra/
CHECKSUMS.asc GPG-KEY isolinux/
CHECKSUMS.md5 PACKAGES.TXT kernels/
CHECKSUMS.md5.asc PRERELEASE_NOTES pasture/
COPYING README81.TXT rootdisks/
COPYRIGHT.TXT SPEEKUP_DOCS.TXT slackware/
CRYPTO_NOTICE.TXT SPEEK_INSTALL.TXT source/
CURRENT.WARNING Slackware-HOWTO
ChangeLog.txt UPGRADE.TXT
ncftp ...ware/slackware-current &#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">get README81.TXT</kbd>
README81.TXT: 12.29 kB 307.07 kB/s
</pre>
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<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-SSH"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-SSH">13.6 The Secure shell</a></h1>
<p>Today, secure shell basks in the adoration that <tt class="COMMAND">telnet</tt> once
enjoyed. <tt class="COMMAND">ssh</tt>(1) allows one to make a connection to a remote
machine and execute programs as if one were physically present; however, <tt
class="COMMAND">ssh</tt> encrypts all the data travelling between the two computers so
even if others intercept the conversation, they are unable to understand it. A typical
secure shell connection follows.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">ssh carrier.lizella.net -l alan</kbd>
The authenticity of host 'carrier.lizella.net (192.168.1.253)' can't be
established.
RSA key fingerprint is 0b:e2:5d:43:4c:39:4f:8c:b9:85:db:b2:fa:25:e9:9d.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
Warning: Permanently added 'carrier.lizella.net' (RSA) to the list of
known hosts.
Password: <kbd class="USERINPUT">password</kbd>
Last login: Sat Nov 6 16:32:19 2004 from 192.168.1.102
Linux 2.4.26-smp.
alan@carrier:~$ <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l MANIFEST</kbd>
-rw-r--r-- 1 alan users 23545276 2004-10-28 20:04 MANIFEST
alan@carrier:~$ <kbd class="USERINPUT">exit</kbd>
logout
Connection to carrier.lizella.net closed.
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>There you see me making an ssh connection to <tt
class="HOSTID">carrier.lizella.net</tt>, and checking the permissions on the <tt
class="FILENAME">MANIFEST</tt> file.</p>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TALK"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TALK">13.10 Talking to Other People</a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4989" name="AEN4989">13.10.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">wall</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">wall</tt>(1) is a quick way to write a message to the users on a
system. The basic syntax is:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">wall [file]</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will result in the contents of [file] being displayed on the terminals of all
currently logged in users. If you don't specify a file, wall will read from standard
input, so you can just type your message, and end with <b class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>+<b
class="KEYCAP">d</b>.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">wall</tt> doesn't have many features, and apart from letting your
users know that you're about to do some serious maintenance to the system, or even reboot
it, so they have time to save their work and log off :)</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN5006" name="AEN5006">13.10.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">talk</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">talk</tt>(1) allows two users to chat. It splits the screen in
half, horizontally. To request a chat with another user, use this command:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">talk &lt;person&gt; [ttyname]</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TALK-TALK"
name="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TALK-TALK"></a>
<p><b>Figure 13-7. Two users in a <tt class="COMMAND">talk</tt> session</b></p>
<p><img src="basic-network-commands/talk.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>If you specify just a username, the chat request is assumed to be local, so only local
users are queried. The ttyname is required if you want to ring a user on a specific
terminal (if the user is logged in more than once). The required information for <tt
class="COMMAND">talk</tt> can be obtained from the <tt class="COMMAND">w</tt>(1)
command.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">talk</tt> can also ring users on remote hosts. For the username
you simply specify an email address. <tt class="COMMAND">talk</tt> will try to contact
that remote user on that host.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">talk</tt> is somewhat limited. It only supports two users and is
half-duplex.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN5033" name="AEN5033">13.10.3 <tt
class="COMMAND">ytalk</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">ytalk</tt>(1) is a backwards compatible replacement for <tt
class="COMMAND">talk</tt>. It comes with Slackware as the <tt class="COMMAND">ytalk</tt>
command. The syntax is similar, but has a few differences:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">ytalk &lt;username&gt;[#ttyname]</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TALK-YTALK"
name="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TALK-YTALK"></a>
<p><b>Figure 13-8. Two users in a <tt class="COMMAND">ytalk</tt> session</b></p>
<p><img src="basic-network-commands/ytalk.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>The username and terminal are specified the same as under talk, except you must put
them together with the hash mark (#).</p>
<p>ytalk offers several advantages:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>It supports more than two users.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>A menu of options that can be brought up anytime with <kbd
class="USERINPUT">Esc</kbd>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You can shell out while still in the talk session.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Plus more...</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>If you're a server administrator, you'll want to make sure that the <tt
class="COMMAND">ntalk</tt> port is enabled in <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/inetd.conf</tt>.
<tt class="COMMAND">ytalk</tt> needs that to work properly.</p>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TELNET"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TELNET">13.5 <tt class="COMMAND">telnet</tt></a></h1>
<p>Someone once stated that <tt class="COMMAND">telnet</tt>(1) was the coolest thing he
had ever seen on computers. The ability to remotely log in and do stuff on another
computer is what separates Unix and Unix-like operating systems from other operating
systems.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">telnet</tt> allows you to log in to a computer, just as if you
were sitting at the terminal. Once your username and password are verified, you are given
a shell prompt. From here, you can do anything requiring a text console. Compose email,
read newsgroups, move files around, and so on. If you are running X and you <tt
class="COMMAND">telnet</tt> to another machine, you can run X programs on the remote
computer and display them on yours.</p>
<p>To login to a remote machine, use this syntax:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">telnet &lt;<var
class="REPLACEABLE">hostname</var>&gt;</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If the host responds, you will receive a login prompt. Give it your username and
password. That's it. You are now at a shell. To quit your telnet session, use either the
<tt class="COMMAND">exit</tt> command or the <tt class="COMMAND">logout</tt> command.</p>
<div class="WARNING">
<table class="WARNING" width="100%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="25" align="CENTER" valign="TOP"><img src="./imagelib/admon/warning.png"
hspace="5" alt="Warning" /></td>
<td align="LEFT" valign="TOP">
<p><tt class="COMMAND">telnet</tt> does not encrypt the information it sends. Everything
is sent in plain text, even passwords. It is not advisable to use <tt
class="COMMAND">telnet</tt> over the Internet. Instead, consider the <tt
class="COMMAND">Secure Shell</tt>. It encrypts all traffic and is available for free.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4593" name="AEN4593">13.5.1 The other use of telnet</a></h2>
<p>Now that we have convinced you not to use the telnet protocol anymore to log into a
remote machine, we'll show you a couple of useful ways to use <tt
class="COMMAND">telnet</tt>.</p>
<p>You can also use the <tt class="COMMAND">telnet</tt> command to connect to a host on a
certain port.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">telnet &lt;<var
class="REPLACEABLE">hostname</var>&gt; [port]</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This can be quite handy when you quickly need to test a certain service, and you need
full control over the commands, and you need to see what exactly is going on. You can
interactively test or use an SMTP server, a POP3 server, an HTTP server, etc. this
way.</p>
<p>In the next figure you'll see how you can <tt class="COMMAND">telnet</tt> to a HTTP
server on port 80, and get some basic information from it.</p>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TELNET-WEB"
name="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TELNET-WEB"></a>
<p><b>Figure 13-1. Telnetting to a webserver</b></p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">telnet store.slackware.com 80</kbd>
Trying 69.50.233.153...
Connected to store.slackware.com.
Escape character is '^]'.
HEAD / HTTP/1.0
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 25 Apr 2005 20:47:01 GMT
Server: Apache/1.3.33 (Unix) mod_ssl/2.8.22 OpenSSL/0.9.7d
Last-Modified: Fri, 18 Apr 2003 10:58:54 GMT
ETag: "193424-c0-3e9fda6e"
Accept-Ranges: bytes
Content-Length: 192
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html
Connection closed by foreign host.
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p>You can do the same for other plain-text protocols, as long as you know what port to
connect to, and what the commands are.</p>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TRACEROUTE"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-TRACEROUTE">13.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">traceroute</tt></a></h1>
<p>Slackware's <tt class="COMMAND">traceroute</tt>(8) command is a very useful network
diagnostic tool. <tt class="COMMAND">traceroute</tt> displays each host that a packet
travels through as it tries to reach its destination. You can see how many
&#8220;hops&#8221; from the Slackware web site you are with this command:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">traceroute www.slackware.com</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Each host will be displayed, along with the response times at each host. Here is an
example output:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">traceroute www.slackware.com</kbd>
traceroute to www.slackware.com (204.216.27.13), 30 hops max, 40 byte packets
1 zuul.tdn (192.168.1.1) 0.409 ms 1.032 ms 0.303 ms
2 207.171.227.254 (207.171.227.254) 18.218 ms 32.873 ms 32.433 ms
3 border-sf-2-0-4.sirius.com (205.134.230.254) 15.662 ms 15.731 ms 16.142 ms
4 pb-nap.crl.net (198.32.128.20) 20.741 ms 23.672 ms 21.378 ms
5 E0-CRL-SFO-03-E0X0.US.CRL.NET (165.113.55.3) 22.293 ms 21.532 ms 21.29 ms
6 T1-CDROM-00-EX.US.CRL.NET (165.113.118.2) 24.544 ms 42.955 ms 58.443 ms
7 www.slackware.com (204.216.27.13) 38.115 ms 53.033 ms 48.328 ms
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">traceroute</tt> is similar to <tt class="COMMAND">ping</tt> in
that it uses ICMP packets. There are several options that you can specify with <tt
class="COMMAND">traceroute</tt>. These options are explained in detail in the man
page.</p>
</div>
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<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 13 Basic Network Commands</td>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-WEB"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-WEB">13.8 Browsers</a></h1>
<p>The first thing that people think about when they hear the word Internet is
&#8220;surfing the net&#8221;. Or looking at websites using a web browser. This is
probably by far the most popular use of the Internet for the average user.</p>
<p>Slackware provides popular graphical web browsers in the &#8220;XAP&#8221; series, as
well as text mode browsers in the &#8220;N&#8221; series. We'll take a quick look at some
of the most common options below.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4776" name="AEN4776">13.8.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">lynx</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">lynx</tt>(1) is a text-based web browser. It is a very quick way
of looking up something on the Internet. Sometimes graphics just get in the way if you
know exactly what you're after.</p>
<p>To start <tt class="COMMAND">lynx</tt>, just type <tt class="COMMAND">lynx</tt> at the
prompt:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">lynx</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-WEB-LYNX"
name="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-WEB-LYNX"></a>
<p><b>Figure 13-5. Lynx default start page</b></p>
<p><img src="basic-network-commands/lynx.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>You may want to specify a site for <tt class="COMMAND">lynx</tt> to open to:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">lynx http://www.slackware.com</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">lynx</tt> prints the command keys and what they do at the bottom
of the screen. The up and down arrow keys move around the document, <kbd
class="USERINPUT">Enter</kbd> selects the highlighted link, and the <kbd
class="USERINPUT">left arrow</kbd> goes back to the previous page. Typing <kbd
class="USERINPUT">d</kbd> will download the currently selected file. The <kbd
class="USERINPUT">g</kbd> command brings up the Go prompt, where you can give <tt
class="COMMAND">lynx</tt> a URL to open.</p>
<p>There are many other commands in <tt class="COMMAND">lynx</tt>. You can either consult
the man page, or type <kbd class="USERINPUT">h</kbd> to get the help screen for more
information.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4813" name="AEN4813">13.8.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">links</tt></a></h2>
<p>Just like <tt class="COMMAND">lynx</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">links</tt> is a textmode
web browser, where you do all the navigation using the keyboard. However, when you press
the <kbd class="USERINPUT">Esc</kbd> key, it will activate a very convenient pulldown
menu on the top of the screen. This makes it very easy to use, without having to learn
all the keyboard shortcuts. People who do not use a text browser every day will
appreciate this feature.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">links</tt> seems to have better support for both frames and
tables, when compared to <tt class="COMMAND">lynx</tt>.</p>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-WEB-LINKS"
name="FIG-BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-WEB-LINKS"></a>
<p><b>Figure 13-6. Links, with the file menu open</b></p>
<p><img src="basic-network-commands/links.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN4831" name="AEN4831">13.8.3 <tt
class="COMMAND">wget</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">wget</tt>(1) is a command line utility that will download files
from a specified URL. While not an actual web-browser, <tt class="COMMAND">wget</tt> is
used primarily to grab whole or partial web sites for offline viewing, or for fast
download of single files from HTTP or FTP servers instead. The basic syntax is:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">wget &lt;url&gt;</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You can also pass options. For example, this will download the Slackware web site:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">wget --recursive http://www.slackware.com</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">wget</tt> will create a <tt
class="FILENAME">www.slackware.com</tt> directory and store the files in there, just as
the site does.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">wget</tt> can also download files from FTP sites; just specify an
FTP URL instead of an HTTP one.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">wget ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/wget/wget-1.8.2.tar.gz</kbd>
--12:18:16-- ftp://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/wget/wget-1.8.2.tar.gz
=&#62; `wget-1.8.2.tar.gz'
Resolving ftp.gnu.org... done.
Connecting to ftp.gnu.org[199.232.41.7]:21... connected.
Logging in as anonymous ... Logged in!
==&#62; SYST ... done. ==&#62; PWD ... done.
==&#62; TYPE I ... done. ==&#62; CWD /gnu/wget ... done.
==&#62; PORT ... done. ==&#62; RETR wget-1.8.2.tar.gz ... done.
Length: 1,154,648 (unauthoritative)
100%[==================================&#62;] 1,154,648 209.55K/s ETA 00:00
12:18:23 (209.55KB/s) - `wget-1.8.2.tar.gz' saved [1154648]
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">wget</tt> has many more options, which make it nice for site
specific scripts (web site mirroring and so forth). The man page should be consulted for
more information.</p>
</div>
</div>
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<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS" name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS"></a>Chapter 13 Basic
Network Commands</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>13.1 <a href="basic-network-commands.html#BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-PING"><tt
class="COMMAND">ping</tt></a></dt>
<dt>13.2 <a href="basic-network-commands-traceroute.html"><tt
class="COMMAND">traceroute</tt></a></dt>
<dt>13.3 <a href="basic-network-commands-dns.html">DNS Tools</a></dt>
<dt>13.4 <a href="basic-network-commands-finger.html"><tt
class="COMMAND">finger</tt></a></dt>
<dt>13.5 <a href="basic-network-commands-telnet.html"><tt
class="COMMAND">telnet</tt></a></dt>
<dt>13.6 <a href="basic-network-commands-ssh.html">The Secure shell</a></dt>
<dt>13.7 <a href="basic-network-commands-email.html">email</a></dt>
<dt>13.8 <a href="basic-network-commands-web.html">Browsers</a></dt>
<dt>13.9 <a href="basic-network-commands-ftp.html">FTP Clients</a></dt>
<dt>13.10 <a href="basic-network-commands-talk.html">Talking to Other People</a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<p>A network consists of several computers connected together. The network can be as
simple as a few computers connected in your home or office, or as complicated as a large
university network or even the entire Internet. When your computer is part of a network,
you have access to those systems either directly or through services like mail and the
web.</p>
<p>There are a variety of networking programs that you can use. Some are handy for
performing diagnostics to see if everything is working properly. Others (like mail
readers and web browsers) are useful for getting your work done and staying in contact
with other people.</p>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-PING"
name="BASIC-NETWORK-COMMANDS-PING">13.1 <tt class="COMMAND">ping</tt></a></h1>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">ping</tt>(8) sends an ICMP <var class="LITERAL">ECHO_REQUEST</var>
packet to the specified host. If the host responds, you get an ICMP packet back. Sound
strange? Well, you can &#8220;ping&#8221; an IP address to see if a machine is alive. If
there is no response, you know something is wrong. Here is an example conversation
between two Linux users:</p>
<a id="AEN4428" name="AEN4428"></a>
<blockquote class="BLOCKQUOTE">
<p class="LITERALLAYOUT"><span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">User
A</i></span>:&nbsp;Loki's&nbsp;down&nbsp;again.<br />
<span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">User
B</i></span>:&nbsp;Are&nbsp;you&nbsp;sure?<br />
<span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">User
A</i></span>:&nbsp;Yeah,&nbsp;I&nbsp;tried&nbsp;pinging&nbsp;it,&nbsp;but&nbsp;there's&nbsp;no&nbsp;response.</p>
</blockquote>
<p>It's instances like these that make <tt class="COMMAND">ping</tt> a very useful
day-to-day command. It provides a very quick way to see if a machine is up and connected
to the network. The basic syntax is:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ping www.slackware.com</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>There are, of course, several options that can be specified. Check the <tt
class="COMMAND">ping</tt>(1) man page for more information.</p>
</div>
</div>
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<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
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<div class="PREFACE">
<h1><a id="BOOK-PREFACE" name="BOOK-PREFACE"></a>Preface</h1>
<h1 class="BRIDGEHEAD"><a id="PREFACE-AUDIENCE" name="PREFACE-AUDIENCE"></a>Intended
Audience</h1>
<p>The Slackware Linux operating system is a powerful platform for Intel-based computers.
It is designed to be stable, secure, and functional as both a high-end server and
powerful workstation.</p>
<p>This book is designed to get you started with the Slackware Linux operating system.
It's not meant to cover every single aspect of the distribution, but rather to show what
it is capable of and give you a basic working knowledge of the system.</p>
<p>As you gain experience with Slackware Linux, we hope you find this book to be a handy
reference. We also hope you'll lend it to all of your friends when they come asking about
that cool Slackware Linux operating system you're running.</p>
<p>While this book may not an edge-of-your-seat novel, we certainly tried to make it as
entertaining as possible. With any luck, we'll get a movie deal. Of course, we also hope
you are able to learn from it and find it useful.</p>
<p>And now, on with the show.</p>
<h1 class="BRIDGEHEAD"><a id="PREFACE-CHANGES" name="PREFACE-CHANGES"></a>Changes from
the First Edition</h1>
<p>This second edition is the culmination of years of hard work by the dedicated members
of the Slackware Documentation Project. The following are the major changes in this new
edition:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><a href="installation.html">Chapter 3</a>, Installation, has been modified with new
screenshots of the installer, and reflects changes in disk-sets, and CD installation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="system-configuration.html">Chapter 4</a>, System Configuration, has been
updated with new information about Linux 2.6.x kernels.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="network-configuration.html">Chapter 5</a>, Network Configuration, has been
expanded with further explanation of Samba, NFS, and DHCP. A section on wireless
networking has also been added. This chapter now reflects major changes in how Slackware
handles network setup.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="x-window-system.html">Chapter 6</a>, X Window System, has been substantially
rewritten for Xorg based systems. This chapter now also covers the xdm graphical login
manager.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="basic-network-commands.html">Chapter 13</a>, Basic Network Commands, has been
enhanced with information about additional network utilities.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="security.html">Chapter 14</a>, Security, is a new chapter with this edition.
It explains how to keep a Slackware Linux system secure.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="emacs.html">Chapter 17</a>, Emacs, is a new chapter with this edition. It
describes how to use Emacs, a powerful editor for Unix.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><a href="package-management.html">Chapter 18</a>, Package Management, has been updated
with information about SlackBuild scripts.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There are many other changes, both minor and major, to reflect changes in Slackware as
it has matured.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<h1 class="BRIDGEHEAD"><a id="PREFACE-ORGANIZATION"
name="PREFACE-ORGANIZATION"></a>Organization of this Book</h1>
<div class="VARIABLELIST">
<dl>
<dt><a href="introduction.html">Chapter 1</a>, Introduction</dt>
<dd>
<p>Provides introductory material on Linux, Slackware, and the Open Source and Free
Software Movements.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="help.html">Chapter 2</a>, Help</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the help resources available on a Slackware Linux system and online.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="installation.html">Chapter 3</a>, Installation</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the installation process step-by-step with screenshots to provide an
illustrative walk-through.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="system-configuration.html">Chapter 4</a>, System Configuration</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the important configuration files and covers kernel recompilation.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="network-configuration.html">Chapter 5</a>, Network Configuration</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes how to connect a Slackware Linux machine to a network. Covers TCP/IP,
PPP/dial-up, wireless networking, and more.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="x-window-system.html">Chapter 6</a>, The X Window System</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes how to setup and use the graphical X Window System in Slackware.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="booting.html">Chapter 7</a>, Booting</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the process by which a computer boots into Slackware Linux. Also covers
dual-booting with Microsoft Windows operating systems.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="shell.html">Chapter 8</a>, The Shell</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the powerful command line interface for Linux.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="filesystem-structure.html">Chapter 9</a>, Filesystem Structure</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the filesystem structure, including file ownership, permission, and
linking.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="file-commands.html">Chapter 10</a>, Handling Files and Directories</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the commands used to manipulate files and directories from the command line
interface.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="process-control.html">Chapter 11</a>, Process Control</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the powerful Linux process management commands used to manage multiple
running applications.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="essential-sysadmin.html">Chapter 12</a>, Essential System
Administration</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes basic system administration tasks such as adding and removing users,
shutting down the system properly, and more.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="basic-network-commands.html">Chapter 13</a>, Basic Network Commands</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the collection of network clients included with Slackware.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="security.html">Chapter 14</a>, Security</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes many different tools available to help keep your Slackware system secure,
including <tt class="COMMAND">iptables</tt> and <tt class="COMMAND">tcpwrappers</tt>.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="archive-files.html">Chapter 15</a>, Archive Files</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the different compression and archive utilities available for Linux.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="vi.html">Chapter 16</a>, vi</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the powerful <tt class="COMMAND">vi</tt> text editor.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="emacs.html">Chapter 17</a>, Emacs</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the powerful <tt class="COMMAND">Emacs</tt> text editor.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="package-management.html">Chapter 18</a>, Slackware Package Management</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the Slackware package utilities and the process used to create custom
packages and tagfiles.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="zipslack.html">Chapter 19</a>, ZipSlack</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the ZipSlack version of Linux that can be used from Windows without
requiring an installation.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="gpl.html">Appendix A</a>, The GNU General Public License</dt>
<dd>
<p>Describes the license terms under which Slackware Linux and this book can be copied
and distributed.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<h1 class="BRIDGEHEAD"><a id="PREFACE-CONV" name="PREFACE-CONV"></a>Conventions used in
this book</h1>
<p>To provide a consistent and easy to read text, several conventions are followed
throughout the book.</p>
<h2 class="BRIDGEHEAD"><a id="PREFACE-CONV-TYPOGRAPHIC"
name="PREFACE-CONV-TYPOGRAPHIC"></a>Typographic Conventions</h2>
<div class="VARIABLELIST">
<dl>
<dt><span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">Italic</i></span></dt>
<dd>
<p>An <span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">italic</i></span> font is used for
commands, emphasized text, and the first usage of technical terms.</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="VARNAME">Monospace</var></dt>
<dd>
<p>A <var class="VARNAME">monospaced</var> font is used for error messages, commands,
environment variables, names of ports, hostnames, user names, group names, device names,
variables, and code fragments.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b class="APPLICATION">Bold</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A <b class="APPLICATION">bold</b> font is used for user input in examples.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<h2 class="BRIDGEHEAD"><a id="PREFACE-CONV-COMMANDS"
name="PREFACE-CONV-COMMANDS"></a>User Input</h2>
<p>Keys are shown in <b class="KEYCAP">bold</b> to stand out from other text. Key
combinations that are meant to be typed simultaneously are shown with `<var
class="LITERAL">+</var>' between the keys, such as:</p>
<p><b class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">Del</b></p>
<p>Meaning the user should type the <b class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>, <b
class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>, and <b class="KEYCAP">Del</b> keys at the same time.</p>
<p>Keys that are meant to be typed in sequence will be separated with commas, for
example:</p>
<p><b class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">X</b>, <b class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>+<b
class="KEYCAP">S</b></p>
<p>Would mean that the user is expected to type the <b class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b> and <b
class="KEYCAP">X</b> keys simultaneously and then to type the <b class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>
and <b class="KEYCAP">S</b> keys simultaneously.</p>
<h2 class="BRIDGEHEAD"><a id="PREFACE-CONV-EXAMPLES"
name="PREFACE-CONV-EXAMPLES"></a>Examples</h2>
<p>Examples starting with <tt class="DEVICENAME">E:\&gt;</tt> indicate a <span
class="TRADEMARK">MS-DOS</span>&reg; command. Unless otherwise noted, these commands may
be executed from a &#8220;Command Prompt&#8221; window in a modern <span
class="TRADEMARK">Microsoft</span>&reg;&nbsp;<span class="TRADEMARK">Windows</span>&reg;
environment.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">D:\&gt;</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">rawrite a: bare.i</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Examples starting with <samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> indicate a command that must be
invoked as the superuser in Slackware. You can login as <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt> to
type the command, or login as your normal account and use <span
class="CITEREFENTRY"><span class="REFENTRYTITLE">su</span>(1)</span> to gain superuser
privileges.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">dd if=bare.i of=/dev/fd0</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Examples starting with <samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> indicate a command that should be
invoked from a normal user account. Unless otherwise noted, C-shell syntax is used for
setting environment variables and other shell commands.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">top</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<h1 class="BRIDGEHEAD"><a id="PREFACE-ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS"
name="PREFACE-ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS"></a>Acknowledgments</h1>
<p>This project is the accumulation of months of work by many dedicated individuals. It
would not have been possible for me to produce this work in a vacuum. Many people deserve
our thanks for their selfless acts: Keith Keller for his work on wireless networking,
Joost Kremers for his great work in single-handedly writing the emacs section, Simon
Williams for the security chapter, Jurgen Phillippaerts for basic networking commands,
Cibao Cu Ali G Colibri for the inspiration and a good kick in the pants. Countless others
have sent in suggestions and fixes. An incomplete list includes: Jacob Anhoej, John Yast,
Sally Welch, Morgan Landry, and Charlie Law. I'd also like to thank Keith Keller for
hosting the mailing list for this project, as well as Carl Inglis for the initial web
hosting. Last but not least, I'd like to thank Patrick J. Volkerding for Slackware Linux,
and David Cantrell, Logan Johnson, and Chris Lumens for Slackware Linux Essentials 1st
Edition. Without their initial framework, none of this would have ever happened. Many
others have contributed in small and large ways to this project and have not been listed.
I hope they will forgive me for a poor memory.</p>
<p>Alan Hicks, May 2005</p>
</div>
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<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BOOTING-DUAL" name="BOOTING-DUAL">7.3 Dual Booting</a></h1>
<p>Many users set up their computers to boot Slackware Linux and another operating
system. We've described several typical dual boot scenarios below, in case you are having
difficulty setting up your system.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="BOOTING-DUAL-WINDOWS" name="BOOTING-DUAL-WINDOWS">7.3.1
Windows</a></h2>
<p>Setting up a computer with both MS Windows and Linux is probably the most common dual
boot scenario. There are numerous ways you can setup the booting, but this section will
cover two.</p>
<p>Often times when setting up a dual boot system, a person will devise a perfect plan
for where everything should go but mess up the installation order. It is very important
to understand that operating systems need to be installed in a certain order for a dual
boot setup to work. Linux always offers control over what, if anything, gets written to
the Master Boot Record. Therefore, it's always advisable to install Linux last. Windows
should be installed first, since it will always write its booter to the Master Boot
Record, overwriting any entry Linux may have put there.</p>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN2577" name="AEN2577">7.3.1.1 Using LILO</a></h3>
<p>Most people will want to use LILO to chose between Linux and Windows. As stated above,
you should install Windows first, then Linux.</p>
<p>Let's say you have a 40GB IDE hard disk as the only drive in your system. Let's also
say that you want to give half of that space to Windows and half of that space to Linux.
This will present a problem when trying to boot Linux.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
20GB Windows boot (C:)
1GB Linux root (/)
19GB Linux /usr (/usr)
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You would also want to set aside an adequate amount of space for a Linux swap
partition. The unwritten rule is to use twice the amount of RAM you have in disk space. A
64MB system would have 128MB of swap, and so on. Adequate swap space is the discussion of
many flames on IRC and Usenet. There's no truly &#8220;right&#8221; way to do it, but
sticking with the rule above should be sufficient.</p>
<p>With your partitions laid out, you should proceed to install Windows. After that is
set up and working, you should install Linux. The LILO installation needs special
attention. You will want to select the expert mode for installing LILO.</p>
<p>Begin a new LILO configuration. You will want to install it to Master Boot Record so
that it can be used to choose between the two operating systems. From the menu, add your
Linux partition and add your Windows (or DOS) partition. Once that's complete, you can
install LILO.</p>
<p>Reboot the computer. LILO should load and will display a menu letting you select
between the operating systems you have installed. Select the name of the OS you wish to
load (these names were selected when you setup LILO).</p>
<p>LILO is quite a configurable boot loader. It's not just limited to booting Linux or
DOS. It can boot just about anything. The man pages for <tt class="COMMAND">lilo</tt>(8)
and <tt class="FILENAME">lilo.conf</tt>(5) provide more detailed information.</p>
<p>What if LILO doesn't work? There are instances where LILO just won't work on a
particular machine. Fortunately, there is another way to dual boot Linux and Windows.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN2591" name="AEN2591">7.3.1.2 Using LOADLIN</a></h3>
<p>This method can be used if LILO doesn't work on your system, or if you just don't want
to set up LILO. This method is also ideal for the user that reinstalls Windows often.
Each time you reinstall Windows, it will overwrite the Master Boot Record, thus
destroying any LILO installation. With LOADLIN, you are not subject to that problem. The
biggest disadvantage is that you can only use LOADLIN to boot Linux.</p>
<p>With LOADLIN, you can install the operating systems in any order desired. Be careful
about installing things to the Master Boot Record, you do not want to do that. LOADLIN
relies on the Windows partition being bootable. So during the Slackware installation,
make sure you skip the LILO setup.</p>
<p>After installing the operating systems, copy the <tt class="FILENAME">loadlin<var
class="REPLACEABLE">X</var>.zip</tt> (where <var class="REPLACEABLE">X</var> is a version
number, such as <var class="LITERAL">16a</var>) file from root's home directory to your
Windows partition. Also copy your kernel image to the Windows partition. You will need to
be in Linux for this to work. This example shows how to do this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">mkdir /win</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">mount -t vfat /dev/hda1 /win</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">mkdir /win/linux</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /root</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cp loadlin* /win/linux</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cp /boot/vmlinuz /win/linux</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /win/linuz</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">unzip loadlin16a.zip</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That will create a <tt class="FILENAME">C:\LINUX</tt> directory on your Windows
partition (assuming it's <tt class="FILENAME">/dev/hda1</tt>) and copy over the necessary
stuff for LOADLIN. After doing this, you will need to reboot into Windows to setup a boot
menu.</p>
<p>Once in Windows, get to a DOS prompt. First, we need to make sure the system is set to
not boot into the graphical interface.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
C:\&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd \</kbd>
C:\&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">attrib -r -a -s -h MSDOS.SYS</kbd>
C:\&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">edit MSDOS.SYS</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Add this line to the file:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
BootGUI=0
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Now save the file and exit the editor. Now edit <tt
class="FILENAME">C:\AUTOEXEC.BAT</tt> so we can add a boot menu. The following provides
an example of what a boot menu block in <tt class="FILENAME">AUTOEXEC.BAT</tt> would look
like:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
cls
echo System Boot Menu
echo.
echo 1 - Linux
echo 2 - Windows
echo.
choice /c:12 "Selection? -&#62; "
if errorlevel 2 goto WIN
if errorlevel 1 goto LINUX
:LINUX
cls
echo "Starting Linux..."
cd \linux
loadlin c:\linux\vmlinuz root=/dev/hda2 ro
goto END
:WIN
cls
echo "Starting Windows..."
win
goto END
:END
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The key line is the one that runs LOADLIN. We tell it the kernel to load, the Linux
root partition, and that we want it mounted read-only initially.</p>
<p>The tools for these two methods are provided with Slackware Linux. There are numerous
other booters on the market, but these should work for most dual boot setups.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN2633" name="AEN2633">7.3.1.3 Deprecated Windows NT
Hack</a></h3>
<p>This is the least common dual booting situation. In the days of old, LILO was unable
to boot Windows NT, requiring Linux users to hack NTLDR, which presented several more
problems than dual booting between Windows 9x and Linux. Understand that the following
instructions are deprecated. LILO has been able to boot Windows NT/2000/XP/2003 for many
years now. If you are using a legacy machine though, you may need to use just such a
hack.</p>
<ol type="1">
<li>
<p>Install Windows NT</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Install Linux, making sure LILO is installed to the superblock of the Linux
partition</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Get the first 512 bytes of the Linux root partition and store it on the Windows NT
partition</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Edit <tt class="FILENAME">C:\BOOT.INI</tt> under Windows NT to add a Linux option</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Installing Windows NT should be fairly straightforward, as should installing Linux.
From there, it gets a little more tricky. Grabbing the first 512 bytes of the Linux
partition is easier than it sounds. You will need to be in Linux to accomplish this.
Assuming your Linux partition is <tt class="FILENAME">/dev/hda2</tt>, issue this
command:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">dd if=/dev/hda2 of=/tmp/bootsect.lnx bs=1 count=512</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That's it. Now you need to copy bootsect.lnx to the Windows NT partition. Here's where
we run into another problem. Linux does not have stable write support for the NTFS
filesystem. If you installed Windows NT and formatted your drive as NTFS, you will need
to copy this file to a FAT floppy and then read from it under Windows NT. If you
formatted the Windows NT drive as FAT, you can simply mount it under Linux and copy the
file over. Either way, you will want to get <tt class="FILENAME">/tmp/bootsect.lnx</tt>
from the Linux drive to <tt class="FILENAME">C:\BOOTSECT.LNX</tt> on the Windows NT
drive.</p>
<p>The last step is adding a menu option to the Windows NT boot menu. Under Windows NT
open a command prompt.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
C:\WINNT&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd \</kbd>
C:\&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">attrib -r -a -s -h boot.ini</kbd>
C:\&#62; <kbd class="USERINPUT">edit boot.ini</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Add this line to the end of the file:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
C:\bootsect.lnx="Slackware Linux"
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Save the changes and exit the editor. When you reboot Windows NT, you will have a
Linux option on the menu. Choosing it will boot into Linux.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="BOOTING-DUAL-LINUX" name="BOOTING-DUAL-LINUX">7.3.2
Linux</a></h2>
<p>Yes, people really do this. This is definitely the easiest dual boot scenario. You can
simply use LILO and add more entries to the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/lilo.conf</tt>
file. That's all there is to it.</p>
</div>
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<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 7 Booting</td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="booting-dual.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BOOTING-LOADLIN" name="BOOTING-LOADLIN">7.2 LOADLIN</a></h1>
<p>The other booting option that comes with Slackware Linux is LOADLIN. LOADLIN is a DOS
executable that can be used to start Linux from a running DOS system. It requires the
Linux kernel to be on the DOS partition so that LOADLIN can load it and properly boot the
system.</p>
<p>During the installation process, LOADLIN will be copied to root's home directory as a
.ZIP file. There is no automatic setup process for LOADLIN. You will need to copy the
Linux kernel (typically <tt class="FILENAME">/boot/vmlinuz</tt>) and the LOADLIN file
from root's home directory to the DOS partition.</p>
<p>LOADLIN is useful if you would like to make a boot menu on your DOS partition. A menu
could be added to your <tt class="FILENAME">AUTOEXEC.BAT</tt> file that would allow you
to pick between Linux or DOS. A choice of Linux would run LOADLIN, thus booting your
Slackware system. This <tt class="FILENAME">AUTOEXEC.BAT</tt> file under Windows 95 will
provide a sufficient boot menu:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
@ECHO OFF
SET PROMPT=$P$G
SET PATH=C:\WINDOWS;C:\WINDOWS\COMMAND;C:\
CLS
ECHO Please Select Your Operating System:
ECHO.
ECHO [1] Slackware Linux
ECHO [2] Windows 95
ECHO.
CHOICE /C:12 "Selection? -&gt; "
IF ERRORLEVEL 2 GOTO WIN
IF ERRORLEVEL 1 GOTO LINUX
:WIN
CLS
ECHO Starting Windows 95...
WIN
GOTO END
:LINUX
ECHO Starting Slackware Linux...
CD \LINUX
LOADLIN C:\LINUX\VMLINUZ ROOT=&lt;root partition device&gt; RO
GOTO END
:END
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You will want to specify your root partition as a Linux device name, like <tt
class="FILENAME">/dev/hda2</tt> or something else. You can always use LOADLIN at the
command line. You simply use it in the same manner as it is in the example above. The
LOADLIN documentation comes with many examples on how to use it.</p>
</div>
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<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
<table summary="Footer navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
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</div>
<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="BOOTING" name="BOOTING"></a>Chapter 7 Booting</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>7.1 <a href="booting.html#BOOTING-LILO">LILO</a></dt>
<dt>7.2 <a href="booting-loadlin.html">LOADLIN</a></dt>
<dt>7.3 <a href="booting-dual.html">Dual Booting</a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<p>The process of booting your Linux system can sometimes be easy and sometimes be
difficult. Many users install Slackware on their computer and that's it. They just turn
it on and it's ready to use. Othertimes, simply booting the machine can be a chore. For
most users, LILO works best. Slackware includes LILO and Loadlin for booting Slackware
Linux. LILO will work from a hard drive partition, a hard drive's master boot record, or
a floppy disk, making it a very versatile tool. Loadlin works from a DOS command line,
killing DOS and invoking Linux.</p>
<p>Another popular utility for booting Linux is GRUB. GRUB is not included or officially
supported by Slackware. Slackware holds to the &#8220;tried and true&#8221; standard for
what gets included inside the distribution. While GRUB works well and includes some
features that LILO does not, LILO handles all the essential tasks of a boot loader
reliably with a proven track record. Being younger, GRUB hasn't quite lived up to that
legacy yet. As it is not included with Slackware, we do not discuss it here. If you wish
to use GRUB (perhaps it came with another Linux OS and you want to use it to dual-boot)
consult GRUB's documentation.</p>
<p>This section covers using LILO and Loadlin, the two booters included with Slackware.
It also explains some typical dual booting scenarios and how you could go about setting
it up.</p>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="BOOTING-LILO" name="BOOTING-LILO">7.1 LILO</a></h1>
<p>The Linux Loader, or LILO, is the most popular booter in use on Linux systems. It is
quite configurable and can easily be used to boot other operating systems.</p>
<p>Slackware Linux comes with a menu-driven configuration utility called <tt
class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt>. This program is first run during the setup process, but
you can invoke it later by typing <tt class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt> at the prompt.</p>
<p>LILO reads its settings from the <tt class="COMMAND">/etc/lilo.conf</tt>(5) file. It
is not read each time you boot up, but instead is read each time you install LILO. LILO
must be reinstalled to the boot sector each time you make a configuration change. Many
LILO errors come from making changes to the <tt class="FILENAME">lilo.conf</tt> file, but
failing to re-run lilo to install these changes. <tt class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt> will
help you build the configuration file so that you can install LILO for your system. If
you prefer to edit <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/lilo.conf</tt> by hand, then reinstalling
LILO just involves typing <tt class="COMMAND">/sbin/lilo</tt> (as <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt>) at the prompt.</p>
<p>When you first invoke <tt class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt>, it will look like this:</p>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="BOOTING-SETUP-LILO" name="BOOTING-SETUP-LILO"></a>
<p><b>Figure 7-1. <tt class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt></b></p>
<p><img src="booting/setup-lilo-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>If this is your first time setting up LILO, you should pick simple. Otherwise, you
might find expert to be faster if you are familiar with LILO and Linux. Selecting simple
will begin the LILO configuration.</p>
<p>If kernel frame buffer support is compiled into your kernel, <tt
class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt> will ask which video resolution you would like to use.
This is the resolution that is also used by the XFree86 frame buffer server. If you do
not want the console to run in a special video mode, selecting normal will keep the
standard 80x25 text mode in use.</p>
<p>The next part of the LILO configuration is selecting where you want it installed. This
is probably the most important step. The list below explains the installation places:</p>
<div class="VARIABLELIST">
<dl>
<dt><var class="OPTION">Root</var></dt>
<dd>
<p>This option installs LILO to the beginning of your Linux root partition. This is the
safest option if you have other operating systems on your computer. It ensures that any
other booters are not overwritten. The disadvantage is that LILO will only load from here
if your Linux drive is the first drive on your system. This is why many people chose to
create a very small <tt class="FILENAME">/boot</tt> partition as the first drive on their
system. This allows the kernel and LILO to be installed at the beginning of the drive
where LILO can find them. Previous versions of LILO contained an infamous flaw known as
the &#8220;1024 cylinder limit&#8221;. LILO was unable to boot kernels on partitions past
the 1024th cylinder. Recent editions of LILO have eliminated this problem.</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="OPTION">Floppy</var></dt>
<dd>
<p>This method is even safer than the previous one. It creates a boot floppy that you can
use to boot your Linux system. This keeps the booter off the hard disk entirely, so you
only boot this floppy when you want to use Slackware. The flaws with this method are
obvious. Floppies are notoriously fickle, prone to failures. Secondly, the boot loader is
no longer self-contained within the computer. If you loose your floppy disk, you'll have
to make another to boot your system.</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="OPTION">MBR</var></dt>
<dd>
<p>You will want to use this method if Slackware is the only operating system on your
computer, or if you will be using LILO to choose between multiple operating systems on
your computer. This is the most preferred method for installing LILO and will work with
almost any computer system.</p>
<div class="WARNING">
<table class="WARNING" width="90%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="25" align="CENTER" valign="TOP"><img src="./imagelib/admon/warning.png"
hspace="5" alt="Warning" /></td>
<td align="LEFT" valign="TOP">
<p>This option will overwrite any other booter you have in the MBR.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<p>After selecting the installation location, <tt class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt> will
write the configuration file and install LILO. That's it. If you select the expert mode
you will receive a special menu. This menu allows you to tweak the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/lilo.conf</tt> file, add other operating systems to your boot menu,
and set LILO to pass special kernel parameters at boot time. The expert menu looks like
this:</p>
<div class="FIGURE"><a id="BOOTING-LILO-EXPERT" name="BOOTING-LILO-EXPERT"></a>
<p><b>Figure 7-2. <tt class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt> Expert Menu</b></p>
<p><img src="booting/setup-lilo-expert-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>Whatever your system configuration is, setting up a working boot loader is easy. <tt
class="COMMAND">liloconfig</tt> makes setting it up a cinch.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="NAVFOOTER">
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<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 17 Emacs</td>
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</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="EMACS-BASIC-EDITING" name="EMACS-BASIC-EDITING">17.4 Basic
Editing</a></h1>
<p>When you have opened a file, you can of course move around in it with the cursor. The
<b class="KEYCAP">cursor keys</b> and <b class="KEYCAP">PgUp</b>, <b
class="KEYCAP">PgDn</b> do what you'd expect. <b class="KEYCAP">Home</b> and <b
class="KEYCAP">End</b> jump to the beginning and end of the line. (In older versions,
they would actually jump to the beginning and end of the buffer.) However, there are also
<b class="KEYCAP">Control</b> and <b class="KEYCAP">Meta</b> (<b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>)
key combos that move the cursor around. Because you do not need to move your hands to
another part of the keyboard for these, they are much quicker once you get used to them.
The most important such commands are listed in <a
href="emacs-basic-editing.html#TABLE-EMACS-BASIC-EDITING">Table 17-1</a>.</p>
<div class="TABLE"><a id="TABLE-EMACS-BASIC-EDITING"
name="TABLE-EMACS-BASIC-EDITING"></a>
<p><b>Table 17-1. Basic Emacs Editing Commands</b></p>
<table border="0" frame="void" width="100%" class="CALSTABLE">
<col width="25%" />
<col width="75%" />
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Command</th>
<th>Result</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">b</b> </td>
<td>go one character back</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">f</b> </td>
<td>go one character forward</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">n</b> </td>
<td>go one line down</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">p</b> </td>
<td>go one line up</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">a</b> </td>
<td>go to the beginning of the line</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">e</b> </td>
<td>go to the end of the line</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">b</b> </td>
<td>go one word back</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">f</b> </td>
<td>go one word forward</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">}</b> </td>
<td>go one paragraph forward</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">{</b> </td>
<td>go one paragraph backward</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">a</b> </td>
<td>go one sentence backward</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">e</b> </td>
<td>go one sentence forward</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">d</b> </td>
<td>delete the character under the cursor</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">d</b> </td>
<td>delete until the end of the current word</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">v</b> </td>
<td>go down one screen (i.e., PgDn)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">v</b> </td>
<td>go up one screen (i.e., PgUp)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">&lt;</b> </td>
<td>go to the beginning of the buffer</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">&gt;</b> </td>
<td>go to the end of the buffer</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">_</b> </td>
<td>undo the last change (can be repeated); note that you actually have to type <b
class="KEYCAP">Shift</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">hyphen</b> for
this.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">k</b> </td>
<td>delete to end of line</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">s</b> </td>
<td>forward search</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">r</b> </td>
<td>backward search</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p>Note that many <b class="KEYCAP">Meta</b> commands are parallel to the <b
class="KEYCAP">Control</b> commands except that they operate on larger units: while <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">f</b> goes forward one character, <b
class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">f</b> goes forward an entire word, etc.</p>
<p>Also note that <b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">&lt;</b> and <b
class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">&gt;</b> require you to type <b
class="KEYCAP">Shift</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">comma</b> and <b
class="KEYCAP">Shift</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">dot</b>
respectively, since <b class="KEYCAP">&lt;</b> and <b class="KEYCAP">&gt;</b> are on <b
class="KEYCAP">Shift</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">comma</b> and <b class="KEYCAP">Shift</b>+<b
class="KEYCAP">dot</b>. (Unless of course you have a different keyboard layout from the
standard US layout.)</p>
<p>Note that <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">k</b> deletes (kills, as it is
commonly called) all the text after the cursor to the end of the line, but doesn't delete
the line itself (i.e., it doesn't delete the final newline). It only deletes the line if
there was no text after the cursor. In other words, in order to delete a complete line,
you have to put the cursor at the beginning of the line, and then hit <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">k</b> twice: once to delete the text on the line,
once to delete the line itself.</p>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="EMACS-BUFFERS" name="EMACS-BUFFERS">17.2 Buffers</a></h1>
<p>In Emacs, the concept of &#8220;buffers&#8221; is essential. Every file that you open
is loaded into its own buffer. Furthermore, Emacs has several special buffers, which do
not contain a file but are used for other things. Such special buffers usually have a
name that starts and ends with an asterisk. For example, the buffer that Emacs shows when
it is first started, is the so-called *scratch* buffer. In the *scratch* buffer, you can
type text in the normal way, but text that is typed there is not saved when Emacs is
closed.</p>
<p>There is one other special buffer you need to know about, and that is the minibuffer.
This buffer consists of only one line, and is always on the screen: it is the very last
line of the Emacs window, below the status bar for the current buffer. The minibuffer is
where Emacs shows messages for the user, and it is also the place where commands that
require some user input are executed. For example, when you open a file, Emacs will ask
for its name in the minibuffer.</p>
<p>Switching from one buffer to another can be done with the command <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b class="KEYCAP">b</b>. This will prompt
you for the name of a buffer (a buffer's name is usually the name of the file you are
editing in it), and it gives a default choice, which is normally the buffer that you were
in before you switched to or created the current buffer. Just hitting <span
class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">Enter</i></span> will switch to that default
buffer.</p>
<p>If you want to switch to another buffer than the default offered by Emacs, just type
its name. Note that you can use so-called <b class="KEYCAP">Tab</b>-completion here: type
the first few letters of the buffer's name and hit <b class="KEYCAP">Tab</b>; Emacs will
then complete the name of the buffer. <b class="KEYCAP">Tab</b> completion works
everywhere in Emacs where it makes sense.</p>
<p>You can get a list of open buffers by hitting <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b
class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">b</b>. This command will
usually split the screen in two, displaying the buffer you were working in in the top
half, and a new buffer called *Buffer List* in the bottom half. This buffer contains a
list of all the buffers, their sizes and modes, and the files, if any, that those buffers
are visiting (as it is called in Emacs). You can get rid of this split screen by typing
<b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b class="KEYCAP">1</b>.</p>
<div class="NOTE">
<table class="NOTE" width="100%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="25" align="CENTER" valign="TOP"><img src="./imagelib/admon/note.png"
hspace="5" alt="Note" /></td>
<td align="LEFT" valign="TOP">
<p>Under X, the list of buffers is also available in the Buffer menu in the menu bar.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="EMACS-MODES" name="EMACS-MODES">17.3 Modes</a></h1>
<p>Every buffer in Emacs has an associated mode. This mode is very different from the
idea of modes in <tt class="COMMAND">vi</tt>: a mode tells you what kind of buffer you
are in. For example, there is text-mode for normal text files, but there are also modes
such as c-mode for editing C programs, sh-mode for editing shell scripts, latex-mode for
editing <b class="APPLICATION">LaTeX</b> files, mail-mode for editing email and news
messages, etc. A mode provides special customizations and functionality that is useful
for the kind of file you are editing. It is even possible for a mode to redefine keys and
key commands. For example, in Text mode, the Tab key simply jumps to the next tab stop,
but in many programming language modes, the <b class="KEYCAP">Tab</b> key indents the
current line according to the depth of the block that line is in.</p>
<p>The modes mentioned above are called major modes. Each buffer has exactly one major
mode. Additionally, a buffer can have one or more minor modes. A minor mode provides
additional features that may be useful for certain editing tasks. For example, if you hit
the <b class="KEYCAP">INSERT</b> key, you invoke overwrite-mode, which does what you'd
expect. There is also an auto-fill-mode, which is handy in combination with text-mode or
latex-mode: it causes each line that you type to be automatically wrapped once the line
reaches a certain number of characters. Without auto-fill-mode, you have to type <b
class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">q</b> to fill out a paragraph. (Which you can also
use to reformat a paragraph after you've edited some text in it and it is no longer
nicely filled out.)</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="EMACS-OPENING-FILES" name="EMACS-OPENING-FILES">17.3.1 Opening
files</a></h2>
<p>To open a file in Emacs, type</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<kbd class="USERINPUT">C-x C-f</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Emacs will ask you for the name of the file, filling in some default path for you
(which is usually <tt class="FILENAME">~/</tt> ). After you type the filename (you can
use <b class="KEYCAP">Tab</b> completion) and hit <b class="KEYCAP">ENTER</b> , Emacs
will open the file in a new buffer and display that buffer on the screen.</p>
<div class="NOTE">
<table class="NOTE" width="100%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="25" align="CENTER" valign="TOP"><img src="./imagelib/admon/note.png"
hspace="5" alt="Note" /></td>
<td align="LEFT" valign="TOP">
<p>Emacs will automatically create a new buffer, it will not load the file into the
current buffer.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p>In order to create a new file in emacs, you cannot just go typing right away. You
first have to create a buffer for it, and come up with a filename. You do this by typing
<b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b
class="KEYCAP">f</b> and typing a filename, just as if you were opening an existing file.
Emacs will notice that the file you typed doesn't exist, and will create a new buffer and
report &#8220;(New file)&#8221; in the minibuffer.</p>
<p>When you type <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">f</b> and then enter a directory name instead of a
filename, Emacs will create a new buffer in which you will find a list of all the files
in that directory. You can move the cursor to the file that you are looking for and type
, and Emacs will open it. (There are in fact a lot more actions you can perform here,
such as deleting, renaming and moving files, etc. Emacs is now in dired-mode, which is
basically a simple file manager.)</p>
<p>When you have typed <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">f</b> and suddenly change your mind, you can type
<b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">g</b> to cancel the action. <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">g</b> works almost everywhere where you want to
cancel an action or command that you've started but don't want to finish.</p>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="EMACS-SAVING-FILES" name="EMACS-SAVING-FILES">17.5 Saving
Files</a></h1>
<p>In order to save a file, you type</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<kbd class="USERINPUT">C-x C-s</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Emacs will not ask you for a filename, the buffer will just be saved to the file it
was loaded from. If you want to save your text to another file, type</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<kbd class="USERINPUT">C-x C-w</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>When you save the file for the first time in this session, Emacs will normally save
the old version of your file to a backup file, which has the same name appended with a
tilde: so if you're editing a file &#8220;<tt class="FILENAME">cars.txt</tt>&#8221;,
Emacs will create a backup &#8220;<tt class="FILENAME">cars.txt~</tt>&#8221;.</p>
<p>This backup file is a copy of the file that you opened. While you are working, Emacs
will also regularly create an auto-save copy of the work you are doing, to a file named
with hash signs: <tt class="FILENAME">#cars.txt#</tt>. This backup is deleted when you
save the file with C-x C-s.</p>
<p>When you are done editing a file, you can kill the buffer that holds it by typing</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<kbd class="USERINPUT">C-x k</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Emacs will then ask you which buffer you want to kill, with the current buffer as
default, which you can select by hitting <b class="KEYCAP">ENTER</b>. If you haven't
saved your file yet, Emacs will ask you if you really want to kill the buffer.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="EMACS-QUITING" name="EMACS-QUITING">17.5.1 Quitting
Emacs</a></h2>
<p>When you are done with Emacs altogether, you can type</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<kbd class="USERINPUT">C-x C-c</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This quits Emacs. If you have any unsaved files, Emacs will tell you so, and ask if
you want to save them each in turn. If you answer no to any of these, Emacs will ask for
one final confirmation and then quit.</p>
</div>
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<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="EMACS" name="EMACS"></a>Chapter 17 Emacs</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>17.1 <a href="emacs.html#EMACS-STARTING">Starting emacs</a></dt>
<dt>17.2 <a href="emacs-buffers.html">Buffers</a></dt>
<dt>17.3 <a href="emacs-modes.html">Modes</a></dt>
<dt>17.4 <a href="emacs-basic-editing.html">Basic Editing</a></dt>
<dt>17.5 <a href="emacs-saving-files.html">Saving Files</a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<p>While <tt class="COMMAND">vi</tt> (with its clones) is without a doubt the most
ubiquitous editor on Unix-like systems, Emacs comes in a good second. Instead of using
different &#8220;modes&#8221;, like <tt class="COMMAND">vi</tt> does, it uses <b
class="KEYCAP">Control</b> and <b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b> key combinations to enter
commands, in much the same way that you can use <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b> and <b
class="KEYCAP">Alt</b> key combinations in a word processor and indeed in many other
applications to execute certain functions. (Though it should be noted that the commands
rarely correspond; so while many modern applications use <b class="KEYCAP">Ctrl</b>-<b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>/ <b class="KEYCAP">X</b>/ <b class="KEYCAP">V</b> for copying,
cutting and pasting, Emacs uses different keys and actually a somewhat different
mechanism for this.)</p>
<p>Also unlike <tt class="COMMAND">vi</tt>, which is an (excellent) editor and nothing
more, Emacs is a program with near endless capabilities. Emacs is (for the most part)
written in Lisp, which is a very powerful programming language that has the peculiar
property that every program written in it is automatically a Lisp compiler of its own.
This means that the user can extend Emacs, and in fact write completely new programs
&#8220;in Emacs&#8221;.</p>
<p>As a result, Emacs is not just an editor anymore. There are many add-on packages for
Emacs available (many come with the program's source) that provide all sorts of
functionality. Many of these are related to text editing, which is after all Emacs' basic
task, but it doesn't stop there. There are for example several spreadsheet programs for
Emacs, there are databases, games, mail and news clients (the top one being Gnus),
etc.</p>
<p>There are two main versions of Emacs: GNU Emacs (which is the version that comes with
Slackware) and XEmacs. The latter is <span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">not</i></span> a version for Emacs running under X. In fact, both Emacs
and XEmacs run on the console as well as under X. XEmacs was once started as a project to
tidy up the Emacs code. Currently, both versions are being actively developed, and there
is in fact much interaction between the two development teams. For the present chapter,
it is immaterial whether you use Emacs or XEmacs, the differences between them are not
relevant to the normal user.</p>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="EMACS-STARTING" name="EMACS-STARTING">17.1 Starting
emacs</a></h1>
<p>Emacs can be started from the shell by simply typing <tt class="COMMAND">emacs</tt>.
When you are running X, Emacs will (normally) come up with its own X window, usually with
a menu bar at the top, where you can find the most important functions. On startup, Emacs
will first show a welcome message, and then after a few seconds will drop you in the
*scratch* buffer. (See <a href="emacs-buffers.html">Section 17.2</a>.)</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN5971" name="AEN5971"></a>
<p><img src="emacs/emacs.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>You can also start Emacs on an existing file by typing</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">emacs /etc/resolv.conf</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will cause Emacs to load the specified file when it starts up, skipping the
welcome message.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="EMACS-COMMAND-KEYS" name="EMACS-COMMAND-KEYS">17.1.1 Command
Keys</a></h2>
<p>As mentioned above, Emacs uses <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b> and <b
class="KEYCAP">Alt</b> combinations for commands. The usual convention is to write these
with <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">letter</b> and <b class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b
class="KEYCAP">letter</b>, respectively. So <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b
class="KEYCAP">x</b> means <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">x</b>, and <b
class="KEYCAP">M</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> means <b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>+<b
class="KEYCAP">x</b>. (The letter <b class="KEYCAP">M</b> is used instead of A because
originally the key was not the <b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b> key but the <b
class="KEYCAP">Meta</b> key. The <b class="KEYCAP">Meta</b> key has all but disappeared
from computer keyboards, and in Emacs the <b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b> key has taken over
its function.)</p>
<p>Many Emacs commands consist of sequences of keys and key combinations. For example, <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b
class="KEYCAP">c</b> (that is <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b>
followed by <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">c</b> ) quits Emacs, <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b
class="KEYCAP">s</b> saves the current file. Keep in mind that <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b
class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">b</b> is <span
class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">not</i></span> the same as <b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> <b class="KEYCAP">b</b>. The former means <b
class="KEYCAP">Control</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> followed by <b
class="KEYCAP">Control</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">b</b>, while the latter means <b
class="KEYCAP">Control</b>-<b class="KEYCAP">x</b> followed by just '<b
class="KEYCAP">b</b>'.</p>
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<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-HARDUSERS"
name="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-HARDUSERS">12.2 Users and Groups, the Hard Way</a></h1>
<p>Of course, it is possible to add, modify, and remove users and groups without using
the scripts and programs that come with Slackware. It's not really difficult, although
after reading this process, you'll probably find it much easier to use the scripts.
However, it's important to know how your password information is actually stored, in case
you ever need to recover this information and don't have the Slackware tools
available.</p>
<p>First, we'll add a new user to the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt>(5), <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/shadow</tt>(5), and <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/group</tt>(5) files.
The <tt class="FILENAME">passwd</tt> file holds some information about the users on your
system, but (strangely enough) not their passwords. This was once the case, but was
halted long ago for security reasons. The passwd file must be readable by all users, but
you don't want encrypted passwords world-readable, as would-be intruders can use the
encrypted passwords as a starting point for decrypting a user's password. Instead, the
encrypted passwords are kept in the shadow file, which is only readable by root, and
everyone's password is entered into the <tt class="FILENAME">passwd</tt> file simply as
&#8220;<var class="LITERAL">x</var>&#8221;. The <tt class="FILENAME">group</tt> file
lists all the groups and who is in each.</p>
<p>You can use the <tt class="COMMAND">vipw</tt> command to edit the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt> file safely, and the <tt class="COMMAND">vigr</tt>
command to edit the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/group</tt> file safely. Use <tt
class="COMMAND">vipw -s</tt> to edit the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/shadow</tt> file
safely. (&#8220;Safely&#8221; in this context means someone else won't be able to modify
the file you're editing at the moment. If you're the only administrator of your system,
you're probably safe, but it's best to get into good habits from the start.)</p>
<p>Let's examine the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt> file and look at how to add a
new user. A typical entry in <tt class="FILENAME">passwd</tt> looks like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
chris:x:1000:100:Chris Lumens,Room 2,,:/home/chris:/bin/bash
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Each line is an entry for one user, and fields on each line are separated by a colon.
The fields are the login name, encrypted password (&#8220;<var
class="LITERAL">x</var>&#8221; for everyone on a Slackware system, since Slackware uses
shadow passwords), user ID, group ID, the optional finger information (separated by
commas), home directory, and shell. To add a new user by hand, add a new line at the end
of the file, filling in the appropriate information.</p>
<p>The information you add needs to meet some requirements, or your new user may have
problems logging in. First, make sure that the password field is an <var
class="LITERAL">x</var>, and that both the user name and user ID is unique. Assign the
user a group, either 100 (the &#8220;users&#8221; group in Slackware) or your default
group (use its number, not its name). Give the user a valid home directory (which you'll
create later) and shell (remember, valid shells are listed in <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/shells</tt>).</p>
<p>Next, we'll need to add an entry in the /etc/shadow file, which holds the encrypted
passwords. A typical entry looks like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
chris:$1$w9bsw/N9$uwLr2bRER6YyBS.CAEp7R.:11055:0:99999:7:::
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Again, each line is an entry for one person, with each field delimited by a colon. The
fields are (in order) login name, encrypted password, days since the Epoch (January 1,
1970) that the password was last changed, days before the password may be changed, days
after which the password must be changed, days before password expiration that the user
is notified, days after expiration that the account is disabled, days since the Epoch
that the account is disabled, and a reserved field.</p>
<p>As you can see, most of that is for account expiration information. If you aren't
using expiration information, you only need to fill in a few fields with some special
values. Otherwise, you'll need to do some calculations and decision making before you can
fill those fields in. For a new user, just put some random garbage in the password field.
Don't worry about what the password is right now, because you're going to change it in a
minute. The only character you cannot include in the password field is a colon. Leave the
&#8220;days since password was changed&#8221; field blank as well. Fill in <var
class="LITERAL">0</var>, <var class="LITERAL">99999</var>, and <var
class="LITERAL">7</var> just as you see in the example entry, and leave the other fields
blank.</p>
<p>(For those of you who think you see my encrypted password above and believe you've got
a leg up on breaking into my system, go right ahead. If you can crack that password,
you'll know the password to a firewalled test system. Now that's useful :) )</p>
<p>All normal users are members of the &#8220;<tt class="USERNAME">users</tt>&#8221;
group on a typical Slackware system. However, if you want to create a new group, or add
the new user to additional groups, you'll need to modify the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/group</tt> file. Here is a typical entry:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
cvs::102:chris,logan,david,root
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The fields are group name, group password, group ID, and group members, separated by
commas. Creating a new group is a simple matter of adding a new line with a unique group
ID, and listing all the users you want to be in the group. Any users that are in this new
group and are logged in will have to log out and log back in for those changes to take
effect.</p>
<p>At this point, it might be a good idea to use the <tt class="COMMAND">pwck</tt> and
<tt class="COMMAND">grpck</tt> commands to verify that the changes you've made are
consistent. First, use <tt class="COMMAND">pwck -r</tt> and <tt class="COMMAND">grpck
-r</tt>: the <var class="OPTION">-r</var> switch makes no changes, but lists the changes
you would be asked to make if you ran the command without the switch. You can use this
output to decide whether you need to further modify any files, to run <tt
class="COMMAND">pwck</tt> or <tt class="COMMAND">grpck</tt> without the <var
class="OPTION">-r</var> switch, or to simply leave your changes as they are.</p>
<p>At this point, you should use the <tt class="COMMAND">passwd</tt> command to create a
proper password for the user. Then, use <tt class="COMMAND">mkdir</tt> to create the new
user's home directory in the location you entered into the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt> file, and use <tt class="COMMAND">chown</tt> to change
the owner of the new directory to the new user.</p>
<p>Removing a user is a simple matter of deleting all of the entries that exist for that
user. Remove the user's entry from <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt> and <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/shadow</tt>, and remove the login name from any groups in the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/group</tt> file. If you wish, delete the user's home directory, the
mail spool file, and his crontab entry (if they exist).</p>
<p>Removing groups is similar: remove the group's entry from <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/group</tt>.</p>
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<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-SHUTDOWN"
name="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-SHUTDOWN">12.3 Shutting Down Properly</a></h1>
<p>It is very important that you shut down your system properly. Simply turning the power
off with the power switch can cause serious filesystem damage. While the system is on,
files are in use even if you aren't doing anything. Remember that there are many
processes running in the background all the time. These processes are managing the system
and keep a lot of files open. When the system's power is switched off, these files are
not closed properly and may become corrupted. Depending on what files become damaged, the
system might be rendered completely unusable! In any case, you'll have to go through a
long filesystem check procedure on the next reboot.</p>
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<p>If you configured your system with a journalling filesystem, like ext3 or reiserfs,
you'll be partially protected from filesystem damage, and your filesystem check on reboot
will be shorter than if you had used a filesystem without journalling, like ext2.
However, this safety net is no excuse for improperly shutting down your system! A
journalling FS is meant to protect your files from events beyond your control, not from
your own laziness.</p>
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<p>In any case, when you want to reboot or power down your computer, it is important to
do so properly. There are several ways of doing so; you can pick whichever one you think
is the most fun (or least amount of work). Since a shutdown and a reboot are similar
procedures, most of the ways for powering off the system can also be applied to
rebooting.</p>
<p>The first method is through the <tt class="COMMAND">shutdown</tt>(8) program, and it
is probably the most popular. <tt class="COMMAND">shutdown</tt> can be used to reboot or
turn off the system at a given time, and can display a message to all the logged-in users
of the system telling them that the system is going down.</p>
<p>The most basic use of shutdown to power down the computer is:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">shutdown -h now</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In this case, we are not going to send a custom message to the users; they will see
<tt class="COMMAND">shutdown</tt>'s default message. &#8220;<var
class="OPTION">now</var>&#8221; is the time that we want to shutdown, and the &#8220;<var
class="OPTION">-h</var>&#8221; means to halt the system. This is not a very friendly way
to run a multi-user system, but it works just fine on your home computer. A better method
on a multiuser system would be to give everyone a little advance warning:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">shutdown -h +60</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This would shutdown the system in one hour (60 minutes), which would be just fine on a
normal multiuser system. Vital systems should have their downtime scheduled far in
advance, and you should post warnings about the downtime in any appropriate locations
used for system notifications (email, bulletin board, <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/motd</tt>, whatever).</p>
<p>Rebooting the system uses the same command, but substitutes &#8220;<var
class="OPTION">-r</var>&#8221; for &#8220;<var class="OPTION">-h</var>&#8221;:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">shutdown -r now</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You can use same time notation with <tt class="COMMAND">shutdown -r</tt> that you
could with <tt class="COMMAND">shutdown -h</tt>. There are a lot of other things that you
can do with <tt class="COMMAND">shutdown</tt> to control when to halt or reboot the
machine; see the man page for more details.</p>
<p>The second way of shutting down or powering off the computer is to use the <tt
class="COMMAND">halt</tt>(8) and <tt class="COMMAND">reboot</tt>(8) commands. As the
names indicate, <tt class="COMMAND">halt</tt> will immediately halt the operating system,
and <tt class="COMMAND">reboot</tt> will reboot the system. (<tt
class="COMMAND">reboot</tt> is actually just a symbolic link to <tt
class="COMMAND">halt</tt>.) They are invoked like so:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">halt</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">reboot</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>A lower-level way to reboot or shutdown the system is to talk directly to <tt
class="COMMAND">init</tt>. All the other methods are simply convenient ways to talk to
<tt class="COMMAND">init</tt>, but you can directly tell it what to do using <tt
class="COMMAND">telinit</tt>(8) (note that it only has one &#8220;l&#8221;). Using <tt
class="COMMAND">telinit</tt> will tell <tt class="COMMAND">init</tt> what runlevel to
drop into, which will cause a special script to be run. This script will kill or spawn
processes as needed for that runlevel. This works for rebooting and shutting down because
both of those are special runlevels.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">telinit 0</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Runlevel 0 is halt mode. Telling <tt class="COMMAND">init</tt> to enter runlevel 0
will cause all processes to be killed off, the filesystems unmounted, and the machine to
be halted. This is a perfectly acceptable way to bring down the system. On many laptops
and modern desktop computers, this will also cause the machine to be turned off.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">telinit 6</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Runlevel 6 is reboot mode. All processes will be killed off, the filesystems will be
unmounted, and the machine will be rebooted. This is a perfectly acceptable method of
rebooting the system.</p>
<p>For the curious, when switching to runlevel 0 or 6, whether by using <tt
class="COMMAND">shutdown</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">halt</tt>, or <tt
class="COMMAND">reboot</tt>, the script <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.6</tt> is run.
(The script <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.0</tt> is another symbolic link, to <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.6</tt>.) You can customize this file to your tastes--but be
sure to test your changes carefully!</p>
<p>There is one last method of rebooting the system. All the other methods require you to
be logged in as <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt>. However, it is possible to reboot the
machine even if you aren't root, provided that you have physical access to the keyboard.
Using <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>+<b
class="KEYCAP">Delete</b> (the "three-fingered salute") will cause the machine to
immediately reboot. (Behind the scenes, the <tt class="COMMAND">shutdown</tt> command is
called for you when you use <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>+<b
class="KEYCAP">Delete</b>.) The salute doesn't always work when using X Windows--you may
need to use <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">Alt</b>+<b
class="KEYCAP">F1</b> (or another Function key) to switch to a non-X Windows terminal
before using it.</p>
<p>Finally, the file that ultimately controls every aspect of startup and shutdown is the
<tt class="FILENAME">/etc/inittab</tt>(5) file. In general, you should not need to modify
this file, but it may give you insight into why some things work the way they do. As
always, see the man pages for further details.</p>
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<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN" name="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN"></a>Chapter 12 Essential System
Administration</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>12.1 <a href="essential-sysadmin.html#ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS">Users and
Groups</a></dt>
<dt>12.2 <a href="essential-sysadmin-hardusers.html">Users and Groups, the Hard
Way</a></dt>
<dt>12.3 <a href="essential-sysadmin-shutdown.html">Shutting Down Properly</a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<p>Whoa whoa whoa whoa whoa.... I know what you're thinking. &#8220;I'm not a system
administrator! I don't even want to be a system administrator!&#8221;</p>
<p>Fact is, you are the administrator of any computers for which you have the <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt> password. This might be your desktop box with one or two
users, or it might be a big server with several hundred. Regardless, you'll need to know
how to manage users, and how to shut down the system safely. These tasks seem simple, but
they have some quirks to keep in mind.</p>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS" name="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS">12.1
Users and Groups</a></h1>
<p>As mentioned in <a href="shell.html">Chapter 8</a>, you shouldn't normally use your
system logged in as <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt>. Instead, you should create a normal
user account for everyday use, and use the root account only for system administration
tasks. To create a user, you can either use the tools supplied with Slackware, or you can
edit the password files by hand.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS-SCRIPTS"
name="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS-SCRIPTS">12.1.1 Supplied Scripts</a></h2>
<p>The easiest way to manage users and groups is with the supplied scripts and programs.
Slackware includes the programs <tt class="COMMAND">adduser</tt>, <tt
class="COMMAND">userdel</tt>(8), <tt class="COMMAND">chfn</tt>(1), <tt
class="COMMAND">chsh</tt>(1), and <tt class="COMMAND">passwd</tt>(1) for dealing with
users. The commands <tt class="COMMAND">groupadd</tt>(8), <tt
class="COMMAND">groupdel</tt>(8), and <tt class="COMMAND">groupmod</tt>(8) are for
dealing with groups. With the exception of <tt class="COMMAND">chfn</tt>, <tt
class="COMMAND">chsh</tt>, and <tt class="COMMAND">passwd</tt>, these programs are
generally only run as <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt>, and are therefore located in <tt
class="FILENAME">/usr/sbin</tt>. <tt class="COMMAND">chfn</tt>, <tt
class="COMMAND">chsh</tt>, and <tt class="COMMAND">passwd</tt> can be run by anyone, and
are located in <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/bin</tt>.</p>
<p>Users can be added with the <tt class="COMMAND">adduser</tt> program. We'll start out
by going through the whole procedure, showing all the questions that are asked and a
brief description of what everything means. The default answer is in the brackets, and
can be chosen for almost all the questions, unless you really want to change
something.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">adduser</kbd>
Login name for new user []: jellyd
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This is the name that the user will use to login. Traditionally, login names are eight
characters or fewer, and all lowercase characters. (You may use more than eight
characters, or use digits, but avoid doing so unless you have a fairly important
reason.)</p>
<p>You can also provide the login name as an argument on the command line:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">adduser jellyd</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In either case, after providing the login name, adduser will prompt for the user
ID:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
User ID ('UID') [ defaults to next available ]:
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The user ID (UID) is how ownerships are really determined in Linux. Each user has a
unique number, starting at 1000 in Slackware. You can pick a UID for the new user, or you
can just let adduser assign the user the next free one.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Initial group [users]:
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>All users are placed into the <tt class="USERNAME">users</tt> group by default. You
might want to place the new user into a different group, but it is not recommended unless
you know what you're doing.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Additional groups (comma separated) []:
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This question allows you to place the new user into additional groups. It is possible
for a user to be in several groups at the same time. This is useful if you have
established groups for things like modifying web site files, playing games, and so on.
For example, some sites define group <tt class="USERNAME">wheel</tt> as the only group
that can use the <tt class="COMMAND">su</tt> command. Or, a default Slackware
installation uses the <tt class="USERNAME">sys</tt> group for users authorized to play
sounds through the internal sound card.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Home directory [/home/jellyd]
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Home directories default to being placed under <tt class="FILENAME">/home</tt>. If you
run a very large system, it's possible that you have moved the home directories to a
different location (or to many locations). This step allows you to specify where the
user's home directory will be.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Shell [ /bin/bash ]
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">bash</tt> is the default shell for Slackware Linux, and will be
fine for most people. If your new user comes from a Unix background, they may be familiar
with a different shell. You can change their shell now, or they can change it themselves
later using the <tt class="COMMAND">chsh</tt> command.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Expiry date (YYYY-MM-DD) []:
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Accounts can be set up to expire on a specified date. By default, there is no
expiration date. You can change that, if you'd like. This option might be useful for
people running an ISP who might want to make an account expire upon a certain date,
unless they receive the next year's payment.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
New account will be created as follows:
---------------------------------------
Login name: jellyd
UID: [ Next available ]
Initial group: users
Additional groups: [ None ]
Home directory: /home/jellyd
Shell: /bin/bash
Expiry date: [ Never ]
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This is it... if you want to bail out, hit <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>+<b
class="KEYCAP">C</b>. Otherwise, press <kbd class="USERINPUT">ENTER</kbd> to go ahead and
make the account.</p>
<p>You now see all the information that you've entered about the new account and are
given the opportunity to abort the account creation. If you entered something
incorrectly, you should hit <b class="KEYCAP">Control</b>+<b class="KEYCAP">C</b> and
start over. Otherwise, you can hit <kbd class="USERINPUT">enter</kbd> and the account
will be made.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Creating new account...
Changing the user information for jellyd
Enter the new value, or press return for the default
Full Name []: Jeremy
Room Number []: Smith 130
Work Phone []:
Home Phone []:
Other []:
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>All of this information is optional. You don't have to enter any of this if you don't
want to, and the user can change it at any time using <tt class="COMMAND">chfn</tt>.
However, you might find it helpful to enter at least the full name and a phone number, in
case you need to get in touch with the person later.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Changing password for jellyd
Enter the new password (minimum of 5, maximum of 127 characters)
Please use a combination of upper and lower case letters and numbers.
New password:
Re-enter new password:
Password changed.
Account setup complete.
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You'll have to enter a password for the new user. Generally, if the new user is not
physically present at this point, you'll just pick some default password and tell the
user to change it to something more secure.</p>
<div class="NOTE">
<table class="NOTE" width="100%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="25" align="CENTER" valign="TOP"><img src="./imagelib/admon/note.png"
hspace="5" alt="Note" /></td>
<td align="LEFT" valign="TOP">
<p><span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">Choosing a Password</i></span>: Having a
secure password is the first line of defense against getting cracked. You do not want to
have an easily guessed password, because that makes it easier for someone to break into
your system. Ideally, a secure password would be a random string of characters, including
upper and lowercase letters, numbers, and random characters. (A tab character might not
be a wise choice, depending on what kinds of computers you'll be logging in from.) There
are many software packages that can generate random passwords for you; search the
Internet for these utilities.</p>
<p>In general, just use common sense: don't pick a password that is someone's birthday, a
common phrase, something found on your desk, or anything that is easily associated with
you. A password like &#8220;secure1&#8221; or any other password you see in print or
online is also bad.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p>Removing users is not difficult at all. Just run <tt class="COMMAND">userdel</tt> with
the name of the account to remove. You should verify that the user is not logged in, and
that no processes are running as that user. Also, remember that once you've deleted the
user, all of that user's password information is gone permanently.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">userdel jellyd</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This command removes that annoying <tt class="USERNAME">jellyd</tt> user from your
system. Good riddance! :) The user is removed from the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt>, <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/shadow</tt>, and <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/group</tt> files, but doesn't remove the user's home directory.</p>
<p>If you'd wanted to remove the home directory as well, you would instead use this
command:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">userdel -r jellyd</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Temporarily disabling an account will be covered in the next section on passwords,
since a temporary change involves changing the user's password. Changing other account
information is covered in <a
href="essential-sysadmin.html#ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS-CHANGING">Section 12.1.3</a>.</p>
<p>The programs to add and remove groups are very simple. <tt
class="COMMAND">groupadd</tt> will just add another entry to the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/group</tt> file with a unique group ID, while <tt
class="COMMAND">groupdel</tt> will remove the specified group. It is up to you to edit
<tt class="FILENAME">/etc/group</tt> to add users to a specific group. For example, to
add a group called <tt class="USERNAME">cvs</tt>:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">groupadd cvs</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>And to remove it:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">groupdel cvs</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS-PASSWDS"
name="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS-PASSWDS">12.1.2 Changing Passwords</a></h2>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">passwd</tt> program changes passwords by modifying the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/shadow</tt> file. This file holds all the passwords for the system
in an encrypted format. In order to change your own password, you would type:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">passwd</kbd>
Changing password for chris
Old password:
Enter the new password (minumum of 5, maximum of 127 characters)
Please use a combination of upper and lower case letters and numbers.
New password:
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>As you can see, you are prompted to enter your old password. It won't appear on the
screen as you type it, just like when you log in. Then, you are prompted to enter the new
password. <tt class="COMMAND">passwd</tt> performs a lot of checks on your new password,
and it will complain if your new password doesn't pass its checks. You can ignore its
warnings if you want. You will be prompted to enter your new password a second time for
confirmation.</p>
<p>If you are <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt>, you can also change another user's
password:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">passwd ted</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You will then have to go through the same procedure as above, except that you won't
have to enter the user's old password. (One of the many benefits of being <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt>...)</p>
<p>If needed, you can also temporarily disable an account, and reenable it at a later
time if needed. Both disabling an account and reenabling an account can be done with <tt
class="COMMAND">passwd</tt>. To disable an account, do the following as <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt>:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">passwd -l david</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will change david's password to something that can never match any encrypted
value. You would reenable the account by using:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">passwd -u david</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Now, david's account is back to normal. Disabling an account might be useful if the
user doesn't play by the rules you've set up on your system, or if they've exported a
very large copy of <tt class="COMMAND">xeyes</tt>(1) to your X desktop.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS-CHANGING"
name="ESSENTIAL-SYSADMIN-USERS-CHANGING">12.1.3 Changing User Information</a></h2>
<p>There are two pieces of information that users can change at any time: their shell and
their finger information. Slackware Linux uses <tt class="COMMAND">chsh</tt> (change
shell) and <tt class="COMMAND">chfn</tt> (change finger) to modify these values.</p>
<p>A user can pick any shell that is listed in the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/shells</tt>
file. For most people, <tt class="COMMAND">/bin/bash</tt> will do just fine. Others might
be familiar with a shell found on their system at work or school and want to use what
they already know. To change your shell, use <tt class="COMMAND">chsh</tt>:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chsh</kbd>
Password:
Changing the login shell for chris
Enter the new value, or press return for the default
Login Shell [/bin/bash]:
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>After entering your password, enter the full path to the new shell. Make sure that
it's listed in the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/shells</tt>(5) file first. The <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt> user can also change any user's shell by running <tt
class="COMMAND">chsh</tt> with a username as the argument.</p>
<p>The finger information is the optional information such as your full name, phone
numbers, and room number. This can be changed using <tt class="COMMAND">chfn</tt>, and
follows the same procedure as it did during account creation. As usual, <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt> can change anyone's finger information.</p>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILE-COMMANDS-COPYMOVE" name="FILE-COMMANDS-COPYMOVE">10.5 Copy
and Move</a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="FILE-COMMANDS-COPYMOVE-CP"
name="FILE-COMMANDS-COPYMOVE-CP">10.5.1 <tt class="COMMAND">cp</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">cp</tt>(1) copies files. DOS users will notice its similarity to
the <tt class="COMMAND">copy</tt> command. There are many options for <tt
class="COMMAND">cp</tt> , so you should have a look at the man page before using it.</p>
<p>A common use is to use <tt class="COMMAND">cp</tt> to copy a file from one location to
another. For example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cp hejaz /tmp</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This copies the <tt class="FILENAME">hejaz</tt> file from the current directory to the
<tt class="FILENAME">/tmp</tt> directory.</p>
<p>Many users prefer to keep the timestamps preserved, as in this example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cp -a hejaz /tmp</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This ensures that the timestamps are not modified in the copy.</p>
<p>To recursively copy the contents of a directory to another directory, you would issue
this command:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cp -R <var
class="REPLACEABLE">mydir</var> /tmp</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That will copy the <var class="REPLACEABLE">mydir</var> directory to the <tt
class="FILENAME">/tmp</tt> directory.</p>
<p>Also if you wish to copy a directory or a file and keep all it's old permissions and
time stamps and keep it exactly the same use <tt class="COMMAND">cp -p</tt>.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l file</kbd>
-rw-r--r-- 1 root vlad 4 Jan 1 15:27 file
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cp -p file /tmp</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l /tmp/file</kbd>
-rw-r--r-- 1 root vlad 4 Jan 1 15:27 file
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">cp</tt> has many more options that are discussed in detail in the
online manual page.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3712" name="AEN3712">10.5.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">mv</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">mv</tt>(1) moves files from one place to another. Sounds simple
enough doesn't it?</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">mv oldfile /tmp/newfile</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">mv</tt> has a few useful command line options that are detailed in
the man page. In practice, <tt class="COMMAND">mv</tt> is almost never used with
commandline options.</p>
</div>
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<tt class="COMMAND">mkdir</tt></td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="file-commands.html"
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<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top">Deletion: <tt class="COMMAND">rm</tt> and <tt
class="COMMAND">rmdir</tt></td>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILE-COMMANDS-CREATION" name="FILE-COMMANDS-CREATION">10.4
Creation: <tt class="COMMAND">touch</tt> and <tt class="COMMAND">mkdir</tt></a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3619" name="AEN3619">10.4.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">touch</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">touch</tt>(1) is used to change the timestamp on a file. You can
change access timestamps and modification timestamps with this command. If the file
specified does not exist, <tt class="COMMAND">touch</tt> will create a zero length file
with the name specified. To mark a file with the current system time, you would issue
this command:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -al file1</kbd>
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 9779 Feb 7 21:41 file1
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">touch file1</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -al file1</kbd>
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 9779 Feb 8 09:17 file1
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>There are several options for <tt class="COMMAND">touch</tt>, including options to
specify which timestamp to modify, the time to use, and many more. The online manual page
discusses these in detail.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3639" name="AEN3639">10.4.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">mkdir</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">mkdir</tt>(1) will create a new directory. You simply specify the
directory to create when you run mkdir. This example creates the <tt
class="FILENAME">hejaz</tt> directory in the current directory:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">mkdir hejaz</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You can also specify a path, like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">mkdir /usr/local/hejaz</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <var class="OPTION">-p</var> option will tell <tt class="COMMAND">mkdir</tt> to
make any parent directories. The above example will fail if <tt
class="COMMAND">/usr/local</tt> does not exist. The <var class="OPTION">-p</var> option
will create <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/local</tt> and <tt
class="FILENAME">/usr/local/hejaz</tt>:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">mkdir -p /usr/local/hejaz</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILE-COMMANDS-DELETION" name="FILE-COMMANDS-DELETION">10.6
Deletion: <tt class="COMMAND">rm</tt> and <tt class="COMMAND">rmdir</tt></a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3733" name="AEN3733">10.6.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">rm</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">rm</tt>(1) removes files and directory trees. DOS users will
notice the similarity to both the <tt class="COMMAND">del</tt> and <tt
class="COMMAND">deltree</tt> commands. <tt class="COMMAND">rm</tt> can be very dangerous
if you do not watch yourself. While it is sometimes possible to retrieve a recently
deleted file, it can be complicated (and potentially costly) and is beyond the scope of
this book.</p>
<p>To remove a single file, specify its name when you run rm:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">rm file1</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If the file has write permissions removed, you may get a permission denied error
message. To force removal of the file no matter what, pass the <tt
class="COMMAND">-f</tt> option, like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">rm -f file1</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>To remove an entire directory, you use the <var class="OPTION">-r</var> and <var
class="OPTION">-f</var> options together. This is a good example of how to delete the
entire contents of your hard drive. You really don't want to do this. But here's the
command anyway:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">rm -rf /</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Be very careful with <tt class="COMMAND">rm</tt>; you can shoot yourself in the foot.
There are several command line options, which are discussed in detail in the online
manual page.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3764" name="AEN3764">10.6.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">rmdir</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">rmdir</tt>(1) removes directories from the filesystem. The
directory must be empty before it can be removed. The syntax is simply:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">rmdir &lt;<var
class="REPLACEABLE">directory</var>&gt;</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This example will remove the <tt class="FILENAME">hejaz</tt> subdirectory in the
current working directory:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">rmdir hejaz</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If that directory does not exist, <tt class="COMMAND">rmdir</tt> will tell you. You
can also specify a full path to a directory to remove, as this example shows:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">rmdir /tmp/hejaz</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That example will try to remove the <tt class="FILENAME">hejaz</tt> directory inside
the <tt class="FILENAME">/tmp</tt> directory.</p>
<p>You can also remove a directory and all of its parent directories by passing the <var
class="OPTION">-p</var> option.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">rmdir -p /tmp/hejaz</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will first try to remove the <tt class="FILENAME">hejaz</tt> directory inside <tt
class="FILENAME">/tmp</tt>. If that is successful, it will try to remove <tt
class="FILENAME">/tmp</tt>. <tt class="COMMAND">rmdir</tt> will continue this until an
error is encountered or the entire tree specified is removed.</p>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILE-COMMANDS-LINK" name="FILE-COMMANDS-LINK">10.7 Aliasing
files with <tt class="COMMAND">ln</tt></a></h1>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">ln</tt>(1) is used to create links between files. These links can
be either hard links or soft (symbolic) links. The differences between the two kinds of
links were discussed in <a href="filesystem-structure-links.html">Section 9.3</a>. If you
wanted to make a symbolic link to the directory <tt class="FILENAME">/var/media/mp3</tt>
and place the link in your home directory, you would do this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ln -s /var/media/mp3 ~/mp3</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <var class="OPTION">-s</var> option tells <tt class="COMMAND">ln</tt> to make a
symbolic link. The next option is the target of the link, and the final option is what to
call the link. In this case, it will just make a file called <tt
class="FILENAME">mp3</tt> in your home directory that points to <tt
class="FILENAME">/var/media/mp3</tt>. You can call the link itself whatever you want by
just changing the last option.</p>
<p>Making a hard link is just as simple. All you have to do is leave off the <var
class="OPTION">-s</var> option. Hard links may not normally refer to directories or span
file systems, however. To create a hard link <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/bin/email</tt> to
<tt class="FILENAME">/usr/bin/mutt</tt>, simply type the following:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">ln /usr/bin/mutt /usr/bin/email</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILE-COMMANDS-OUTPUT" name="FILE-COMMANDS-OUTPUT">10.3 Simple
Output: <tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt> and <tt class="COMMAND">echo</tt></a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3559" name="AEN3559">10.3.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">cat</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt>(1) is short for &#8220;concatenate&#8221;. It was
originally designed to merge text files into one, but can be used for many other
purposes.</p>
<p>To merge two or more files into one, you simply list the files after the <tt
class="COMMAND">cat</tt> command and then redirect the new output to a file. <tt
class="COMMAND">cat</tt> works with standard input and standard output, so you have to
use the shell redirection characters. For example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">cat file1 file2 file3 &gt; bigfile</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This command takes the contents of <tt class="FILENAME">file1</tt>, <tt
class="FILENAME">file2</tt>, and <tt class="FILENAME">file3</tt> and merges it all
together. The new output is sent to standard out.</p>
<p>One can also use <tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt> to display files. Many people <tt
class="COMMAND">cat</tt> text files through the <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt> or <tt
class="COMMAND">less</tt> commands, like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cat file1 | more</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That will display the <tt class="FILENAME">file1</tt> file and pipe it through the <tt
class="COMMAND">more</tt> command so that you only get one screen at a time.</p>
<p>Another common use for <tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt> is copying files. You can copy any
file around with <tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt>, like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cat /bin/bash &gt; ~/mybash</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">/bin/bash</tt> program is copied to your home directory and
named <tt class="FILENAME">mybash</tt>.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt> has many uses and the ones discussed here are just a few.
Since <tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt> makes extensive use of standard input and standard
output, it is ideal for use in shell scripts or part of other complex commands.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3603" name="AEN3603">10.3.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">echo</tt></a></h2>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">echo</tt>(1) command displays the specified text on the
screen. You specify the string to display after the <tt class="COMMAND">echo</tt>
command. By default <tt class="COMMAND">echo</tt> will display the string and print a
newline character after it. You can pass the <var class="OPTION">-n</var> option to
suppress the printing of the newline. The <var class="OPTION">-e</var> option will cause
<tt class="COMMAND">echo</tt> to search for escape characters in the string and execute
them.</p>
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<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top">Creation: <tt class="COMMAND">touch</tt> and
<tt class="COMMAND">mkdir</tt></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</body>
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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<title>Pagers: more, less, and most</title>
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="UP" title="Handling Files and Directories" href="file-commands.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="Handling Files and Directories" href="file-commands.html" />
<link rel="NEXT" title="Simple Output: cat and echo" href="file-commands-output.html" />
<link rel="STYLESHEET" type="text/css" href="docbook.css" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
</head>
<body class="SECT1" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084"
alink="#0000FF">
<div class="NAVHEADER">
<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" align="center">Slackware Linux Essentials</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a href="file-commands.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 10 Handling Files and
Directories</td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="file-commands-output.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILE-COMMANDS-PAGERS" name="FILE-COMMANDS-PAGERS">10.2 Pagers:
<tt class="COMMAND">more</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">less</tt>, and <tt
class="COMMAND">most</tt></a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3491" name="AEN3491">10.2.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">more</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">more</tt>(1) is what we call a pager utility. Oftentimes the
output of a particular command is too big to fit on one screen. The individual commands
do not know how to fit their output to separate screens. They leave this job to the pager
utility.</p>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt> command breaks the output into individual screens
and waits for you to press the space bar before continuing on to the next screen.
Pressing the enter key will advance the output one line. Here is a good example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /usr/bin</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That should scroll for a while. To break up the output screen by screen, just pipe it
through more:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l | more</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That is the pipe character (shift backslash). The pipe is short for saying take the
output of <tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt> and feed it into <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt>. You
can pipe just about anything through the <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt> command, not just
<tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt>. Piping is also covered in <a
href="shell-command-line.html#SHELL-COMMAND-LINE-PIPING">Section 8.2.3</a>.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3518" name="AEN3518">10.2.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">less</tt></a></h2>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt> command is quite handy, but often you will find that
you have advanced past the screen you wanted. more does not provide a way to go back. The
<tt class="COMMAND">less</tt>(1) command provides this functionality. It is used in the
same way as the <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt> command, so the previous examples apply
here too. So, <tt class="COMMAND">less</tt> is more than <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt>.
Joost Kremers puts it this way:</p>
<a id="AEN3530" name="AEN3530"></a>
<blockquote class="BLOCKQUOTE">
<p><tt class="COMMAND">less</tt> is more, but more <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt> than <tt
class="COMMAND">more</tt> is, so <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt> is less <tt
class="COMMAND">less</tt>, so use more <tt class="COMMAND">less</tt> if you want less <tt
class="COMMAND">more</tt>.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3539" name="AEN3539">10.2.3 <tt
class="COMMAND">most</tt></a></h2>
<p>Where <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt> and <tt class="COMMAND">less</tt> leave off, <tt
class="COMMAND">most</tt>(1) picks back up. If <tt class="COMMAND">less</tt> is more than
<tt class="COMMAND">more</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">most</tt> is more than <tt
class="COMMAND">less</tt>. Whereas the other pagers can only display one file at a time,
<tt class="COMMAND">most</tt> is capable of viewing any number of files, as long as each
file's window is at least 2 lines long. <tt class="COMMAND">most</tt> has a lot of
options, check the man page for full details.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="NAVFOOTER">
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
<table summary="Footer navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top"><a href="file-commands.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="index.html"
accesskey="H">Home</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top"><a href="file-commands-output.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top">Handling Files and Directories</td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top"><a href="file-commands.html"
accesskey="U">Up</a></td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top">Simple Output: <tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt>
and <tt class="COMMAND">echo</tt></td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN"
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<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<title>Handling Files and Directories</title>
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="NFS Mounts" href="filesystem-structure-nfs.html" />
<link rel="NEXT" title="Pagers: more, less, and most" href="file-commands-pagers.html" />
<link rel="STYLESHEET" type="text/css" href="docbook.css" />
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
</head>
<body class="CHAPTER" bgcolor="#FFFFFF" text="#000000" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084"
alink="#0000FF">
<div class="NAVHEADER">
<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<th colspan="3" align="center">Slackware Linux Essentials</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a href="filesystem-structure-nfs.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom"></td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="file-commands-pagers.html"
accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="FILE-COMMANDS" name="FILE-COMMANDS"></a>Chapter 10 Handling Files and
Directories</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>10.1 <a href="file-commands.html#FILE-COMMANDS-NAVIGATION">Navigation : <tt
class="COMMAND">ls</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt>, and <tt
class="COMMAND">pwd</tt></a></dt>
<dt>10.2 <a href="file-commands-pagers.html">Pagers: <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt>, <tt
class="COMMAND">less</tt>, and <tt class="COMMAND">most</tt></a></dt>
<dt>10.3 <a href="file-commands-output.html">Simple Output: <tt class="COMMAND">cat</tt>
and <tt class="COMMAND">echo</tt></a></dt>
<dt>10.4 <a href="file-commands-creation.html">Creation: <tt class="COMMAND">touch</tt>
and <tt class="COMMAND">mkdir</tt></a></dt>
<dt>10.5 <a href="file-commands-copymove.html">Copy and Move</a></dt>
<dt>10.6 <a href="file-commands-deletion.html">Deletion: <tt class="COMMAND">rm</tt> and
<tt class="COMMAND">rmdir</tt></a></dt>
<dt>10.7 <a href="file-commands-link.html">Aliasing files with <tt
class="COMMAND">ln</tt></a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<p>Linux aims to the most Unix-like it can be. Traditionally, Unix operating systems have
been command-line oriented. We do have a graphical user interface in Slackware, but the
command-line is still the main level of control for the system. Therefore, it is
important to understand some of the basic file management commands.</p>
<p>The following sections explain the common file management commands and provide
examples of how they are used. There are many other commands, but these will help you get
started. Also, the commands are only briefly discussed here. You will find more detail in
the accompanying man pages for each command.</p>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILE-COMMANDS-NAVIGATION" name="FILE-COMMANDS-NAVIGATION">10.1
Navigation : <tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt>, <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt>, and <tt
class="COMMAND">pwd</tt></a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3398" name="AEN3398">10.1.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">ls</tt></a></h2>
<p>This command lists files in a directory. Windows and DOS users will notice its
similarity to the <tt class="COMMAND">dir</tt> command. By itself, <tt
class="COMMAND">ls</tt>(1) will list the files in the current directory. To see what's in
your root directory, you could issue these commands:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls</kbd>
bin cdr dev home lost+found proc sbin tmp var
boot cdrom etc lib mnt root suncd usr vmlinuz
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The problem a lot of people have with that output is that you cannot easily tell what
is a directory and what is a file. Some users prefer that <tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt> add
a type identifier to each listing, like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -FC</kbd>
bin/ cdr/ dev/ home/ lost+found/ proc/ sbin/ tmp/ var/
boot/ cdrom/ etc/ lib/ mnt/ root/ suncd/ usr/ vmlinuz
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Directories get a slash at the end of the name, executable files get an asterisk at
the end of the name, and so on.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt> can also be used to get other statistics on files. For
example, to see the creation dates, owners, and permissions, you would look at a long
listing:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l</kbd>
drwxr-xr-x 2 root bin 4096 May 7 09:11 bin/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 24 03:55 boot/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 18 01:10 cdr/
drwxr-xr-x 14 root root 6144 Oct 23 18:37 cdrom/
drwxr-xr-x 4 root root 28672 Mar 5 18:01 dev/
drwxr-xr-x 10 root root 4096 Mar 8 03:32 etc/
drwxr-xr-x 8 root root 4096 Mar 8 03:31 home/
drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 4096 Jan 23 21:29 lib/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 16384 Nov 1 08:53 lost+found/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Oct 6 12:47 mnt/
dr-xr-xr-x 62 root root 0 Mar 4 15:32 proc/
drwxr-x--x 12 root root 4096 Feb 26 02:06 root/
drwxr-xr-x 2 root bin 4096 Feb 17 02:02 sbin/
drwxr-xr-x 5 root root 2048 Oct 25 10:51 suncd/
drwxrwxrwt 4 root root 487424 Mar 7 20:42 tmp/
drwxr-xr-x 21 root root 4096 Aug 24 03:04 usr/
drwxr-xr-x 18 root root 4096 Mar 8 03:32 var/
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Suppose you want to get a listing of the hidden files in the current directory. This
command will do just that:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -a</kbd>
. bin cdrom home mnt sbin usr
.. boot dev lib proc suncd var
.pwrchute_tmp cdr etc lost+found root tmp vmlinuz
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Files beginning with a period (called dot files) are hidden when you run <tt
class="COMMAND">ls</tt>. You will only see them if you pass the <var
class="OPTION">-a</var> option.</p>
<p>There are many more options that can be found in the online manual page. Don't forget
that you can combine options that you pass to <tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt>.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3436" name="AEN3436">10.1.2 <tt
class="COMMAND">cd</tt></a></h2>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt> command is used to change working directories. You
simply type <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt> followed by the path name to change to. Here are
some examples:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
darkstar:~$ <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /bin</kbd>
darkstar:/bin$ <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd usr</kbd>
bash: cd: usr: No such file or directory
darkstar:/bin$ <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /usr</kbd>
darkstar:/usr$ <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls</kbd>
bin
darkstar:/usr$ <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd bin</kbd>
darkstar:/usr/bin$
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Notice that without the preceding slash, it tries to change to a directory in the
current directory. Also executing <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt> with no options will move
you to your home directory.</p>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt> command is not like the other commands. It is a
builtin shell command. Shell builtins are discussed in <a
href="shell-bash.html#SHELL-BASH-ENVIRONMENT">Section 8.3.1</a>. This may not make any
sense to you right now. Basically it means there is no man page for this command.
Instead, you have to use the shell help. Like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">help cd</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>It will display the options for <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt> and how to use them.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3463" name="AEN3463">10.1.3 <tt
class="COMMAND">pwd</tt></a></h2>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">pwd</tt> command is used to show your current location. To use
the <tt class="COMMAND">pwd</tt> command just type <tt class="COMMAND">pwd</tt>. For
example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /bin</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">pwd</kbd>
/bin
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /usr</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd bin</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">pwd</kbd>
/usr/bin
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="NAVFOOTER">
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
<table summary="Footer navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
cellspacing="0">
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top"><a href="filesystem-structure-nfs.html"
accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
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accesskey="H">Home</a></td>
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accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="33%" align="left" valign="top">NFS Mounts</td>
<td width="34%" align="center" valign="top">&nbsp;</td>
<td width="33%" align="right" valign="top">Pagers: <tt class="COMMAND">more</tt>, <tt
class="COMMAND">less</tt>, and <tt class="COMMAND">most</tt></td>
</tr>
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<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org" />
<title>Links</title>
<meta name="GENERATOR" content="Modular DocBook HTML Stylesheet Version 1.7" />
<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="UP" title="Filesystem Structure" href="filesystem-structure.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="Permissions" href="filesystem-structure-permissions.html" />
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alink="#0000FF">
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<table summary="Header navigation table" width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0"
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</tr>
<tr>
<td width="10%" align="left" valign="bottom"><a
href="filesystem-structure-permissions.html" accesskey="P">Prev</a></td>
<td width="80%" align="center" valign="bottom">Chapter 9 Filesystem Structure</td>
<td width="10%" align="right" valign="bottom"><a
href="filesystem-structure-mounting.html" accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
</tr>
</table>
<hr align="LEFT" width="100%" />
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-LINKS"
name="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-LINKS">9.3 Links</a></h1>
<p>Links are pointers between files. With links, you can have files exist in many
locations and be accessible by many names. There are two types of links: hard and
soft.</p>
<p>Hard links are names for a particular file. They can only exist within a single
filesystem and are only removed when the real name is removed from the system. These are
useful in some cases, but many users find the soft link to be more versatile.</p>
<p>The soft link, also called a symbolic link, can point to a file outside of its
filesystem. It is actually a small file containing the information it needs. You can add
and remove soft links without affecting the actual file. And since a symbolic link is
actually a small file containing its own information, they can even point at a directory.
It's rather common to have <tt class="FILENAME">/var/tmp</tt> actually be a symbolic link
to <tt class="FILENAME">/tmp</tt> for example.</p>
<p>Links do not have their own set of permissions or ownerships, but instead reflect
those of the file they point to. Slackware uses mostly soft links. Here is a common
example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l /bin/sh</kbd>
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root 4 Apr 6 12:34 /bin/sh -&#62; bash
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">sh</tt> shell under Slackware is actually <tt
class="COMMAND">bash</tt>. Removing links is done using <tt class="COMMAND">rm</tt>. The
<tt class="COMMAND">ln</tt> command is used to create links. These commands will be
discussed in more depth in <a href="file-commands.html">Chapter 10</a>.</p>
<p>It's very important to be careful about symlinks in particular. Once, I was working on
a machine that was consistently failing to back-up to tape each night. Two symlinks had
been made to directories beneath each other. The back-up software kept appending those
same directories to the tape until it was out of space. Normally, a set of checks will
prevent creating a symlink in this situation, but ours was a special case.</p>
</div>
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accesskey="N">Next</a></td>
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<link rel="HOME" title="Slackware Linux Essentials" href="index.html" />
<link rel="UP" title="Filesystem Structure" href="filesystem-structure.html" />
<link rel="PREVIOUS" title="Links" href="filesystem-structure-links.html" />
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-MOUNTING"
name="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-MOUNTING">9.4 Mounting Devices</a></h1>
<p>As was previously discussed in <a
href="system-configuration.html#SYSTEM-CONFIGURATION-LAYOUT">Section 4.1.1</a>, all the
drives and devices in your computer are one big filesystem. Various hard drive
partitions, CD-ROMs, and floppies are all placed in the same tree. In order to attach
these drives to the filesystem so that you can access them, you have to use the <tt
class="COMMAND">mount</tt>(1) and <tt class="COMMAND">umount</tt>(1) commands.</p>
<p>Some devices are automatically mounted when you boot up your computer. These are
listed in the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/fstab</tt> file. Anything that you want to be
mounted automatically gets an entry in that file. For other devices, you'll have to issue
a command every time you want to use the device.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3319" name="AEN3319">9.4.1 <tt
class="FILENAME">fstab</tt></a></h2>
<p>Let's look at an example of the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/fstab</tt> file:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cat /etc/fstab</kbd>
/dev/sda1 / ext2 defaults 1 1
/dev/sda2 /usr/local ext2 defaults 1 1
/dev/sda4 /home ext2 defaults 1 1
/dev/sdb1 swap swap defaults 0 0
/dev/sdb3 /export ext2 defaults 1 1
none /dev/pts devpts gid=5,mode=620 0 0
none /proc proc defaults 0 0
/dev/fd0 /mnt ext2 defaults 0 0
/dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom iso9660 ro 0 0
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The first column is the device name. In this case, the devices are five partitions
spread out across two SCSI hard drives, two special filesystems that don't need a device,
a floppy, and a CD-ROM drive. The second column is where the device will be mounted. This
needs to be a directory name, except in the case of a swap partition. The third column is
the filesystem type of the device. For normal Linux filesystems, this will be <var
class="LITERAL">ext2</var> (second extended filesystem). CD-ROM drives are <var
class="LITERAL">iso9660</var>, and Windows-based devices will either be <var
class="LITERAL">msdos</var> or <var class="LITERAL">vfat</var>.</p>
<p>The fourth column is a listing of options that apply to the mounted filesystem.
defaults is fine for just about everything. However, read-only devices should be given
the <var class="LITERAL">ro</var> flag. There are a lot of options that can be used.
Check the <tt class="FILENAME">fstab</tt>(5) man page for more information. The last two
columns are used by <tt class="COMMAND">fsck</tt> and other commands that need to
manipulate the devices. Check the man page for that information as well.</p>
<p>When you install Slackware Linux, the setup program will build much of the <tt
class="FILENAME">fstab</tt> file.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN3340" name="AEN3340">9.4.2 <tt class="COMMAND">mount</tt> and
<tt class="COMMAND">umount</tt></a></h2>
<p>Attaching another device to your filesystem is easy. All you have to do is use the <tt
class="COMMAND">mount</tt> command, along with a few options. Using <tt
class="COMMAND">mount</tt> can simplified if the device has an entry in the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/fstab</tt> file. For example, let's say that I wanted to mount my
CD-ROM drive and that my <tt class="COMMAND">fstab</tt> file looked like the example from
the previous section. I would call <tt class="COMMAND">mount</tt> like so:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">mount /cdrom</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Since there is an entry in <tt class="FILENAME">fstab</tt> for that mount point, <tt
class="COMMAND">mount</tt> knows what options to use. If there wasn't an entry for that
device, I would have to use several options for <tt class="COMMAND">mount</tt>:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">mount -t iso9660 -o ro /dev/cdrom /cdrom</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That command line includes the same information as the example <tt
class="FILENAME">fstab</tt> did, but we'll go over all the parts anyways. The <var
class="OPTION">-t iso9660</var> is the filesystem type of the device to mount. In this
case, it would be the iso9660 filesystem which is what CD-ROM drives most commonly use.
The <var class="OPTION">-o ro</var> tells mount to mount the device read-only. The <tt
class="FILENAME">/dev/cdrom</tt> is the name of the device to mount, and <tt
class="FILENAME">/cdrom</tt> is the location on the filesystem to mount the drive.</p>
<p>Before you can remove a floppy, CD-ROM, or other removable device that is currently
mounted, you'll have to unmount it. That is done using the <tt
class="COMMAND">umount</tt> command. Don't ask where the &#8220;n&#8221; went because we
couldn't tell you. You can use either the mounted device or the mount point as the
argument to <tt class="COMMAND">umount</tt>. For example, if you wanted to unmount the
CD-ROM from the previous example, either of these commands would work:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">umount /dev/cdrom</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">umount /cdrom</kbd>
</pre>
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<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-NFS" name="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-NFS">9.5
NFS Mounts</a></h1>
<p>NFS stands for the Network Filesystem. It is not really part of the real filesystem,
but can be used to add parts to the mounted filesystem.</p>
<p>Large Unix environments often times share the same programs, sets of home directories,
and mail spool. The problem of getting the same copy to each machine is solved with NFS.
We can use NFS to share one set of home directories between all of the workstations. The
workstations then mount that NFS share as if it were on their own machines.</p>
<p>See <a href="network-configuration-nfs.html#NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NFS-NFS">Section
5.6.2</a> and the man pages for <tt class="FILENAME">exports</tt>(5), <tt
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-PERMISSIONS"
name="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-PERMISSIONS">9.2 Permissions</a></h1>
<p>Permissions are the other important part of the multiuser aspects of the filesystem.
With these, you can change who can read, write, and execute files.</p>
<p>The permission information is stored as four octal digits, each specifying a different
set of permissions. There are owner permissions, group permissions, and world
permissions. The fourth octal digit is used to store special information such as set user
ID, set group ID, and the sticky bit. The octal values assigned to the permission modes
are (they also have letters associated with them that are displayed by programs such as
<tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt> and can be used by <tt class="COMMAND">chmod</tt>):</p>
<div class="TABLE"><a id="AEN3142" name="AEN3142"></a>
<p><b>Table 9-1. Octal Permission Values</b></p>
<table border="0" frame="void" class="CALSTABLE">
<col width="3*" />
<col width="1*" align="CENTER" />
<col width="1*" align="CENTER" />
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Permission Type</th>
<th>Octal Value</th>
<th>Letter Value</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>&#8220;sticky&#8221; bit</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>t</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>set user ID</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>set group ID</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>s</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>read</td>
<td>4</td>
<td>r</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>write</td>
<td>2</td>
<td>w</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>execute</td>
<td>1</td>
<td>x</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p>You add the octal values for each permission group. For example, if you want the group
permissions to be &#8220;read&#8221; and &#8220;write&#8221;, you would use
&#8220;6&#8221; in the group portion of the permission information.</p>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">bash</tt>'s default permissions are:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l /bin/bash</kbd>
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root bin 477692 Mar 21 19:57 /bin/bash
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The first dash would be replaced with a &#8220;d&#8221; if this was a directory. The
three permission groups (owner, group, and world) are displayed next. We see that the
owner has read, write, and execute permissions (<var class="LITERAL">rwx</var>). The
group has only read and execute (<var class="LITERAL">r-x</var>). And everyone else has
only read and execute (<var class="LITERAL">r-x</var>).</p>
<p>How would we set permissions on another file to resemble <tt
class="COMMAND">bash</tt>'s? First, let's make an example file:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">touch /tmp/example</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l /tmp/example</kbd>
-rw-rw-r--- 1 david users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>We will use <tt class="COMMAND">chmod</tt>(1) (which means &#8220;change mode&#8221;)
to set the permissions on the example file. Add the octal numbers for the permissions you
want. For the owner to have read, write, and execute, we would have a value of <var
class="LITERAL">7</var>. Read and execute would have <var class="LITERAL">5</var>. Run
those together and pass them to <tt class="COMMAND">chmod</tt> like this:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chmod 755 /tmp/example</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l /tmp/example</kbd>
-rwxr-xr-x 1 david users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Now you may be thinking, &#8220;Why didn't it just create a file with those
permissions in the first place?&#8221; Well the answer is simple. <tt
class="COMMAND">bash</tt> includes a nice little built-in called <tt
class="COMMAND">umask</tt>. This is included with most Unix shells as well, and controls
what file permissions are assigned to newly created files. We discussed <tt
class="COMMAND">bash</tt> built-ins to some degree in <a
href="shell-bash.html#SHELL-BASH-ENVIRONMENT">Section 8.3.1</a>. <tt
class="COMMAND">umask</tt> takes a little getting used to. It works very similar to <tt
class="COMMAND">chmod</tt>, only in reverse. You specify the octal values you do not wish
to have present in newly created files. The default umask value is <var
class="LITERAL">0022</var>.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">umask</kbd>
0022
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">umask 0077</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">touch tempfile</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l tempfile</kbd>
-rw-------- 1 david users 0 Apr 19 11:21 tempfile
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>See the man page for <tt class="COMMAND">bash</tt> for more information.</p>
<p>To set special permissions with <tt class="COMMAND">chmod</tt>, add the numbers
together and place them in the first column. For example, to make it set user ID and set
group ID, we use 6 as the first column:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chmod 6755 /tmp/example</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l /tmp/example</kbd>
-rwsr-sr-x 1 david users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If the octal values confuse you, you can use letters with <tt
class="COMMAND">chmod</tt>. The permission groups are represented as:</p>
<div class="INFORMALTABLE"><a id="AEN3246" name="AEN3246"></a>
<table border="0" frame="void" class="CALSTABLE">
<col />
<col />
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Owner</td>
<td>u</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Group</td>
<td>g</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>World</td>
<td>o</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>All of the above</td>
<td>a</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p>To do the above, we would have to use several command lines:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chmod a+rx /tmp/example</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chmod u+w /tmp/example</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chmod ug+s /tmp/example</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Some people prefer the letters over the numbers. Either way will result in the same
set of permissions.</p>
<p>The octal format is often faster, and the one you see most often used in shell
scripts. Sometimes the letters are more powerful however. For example, there's no easy
way to change one group of permissions while preserving the other groups on files and
directories when using the octal format. This is trivial with the letters.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l /tmp/</kbd>
-rwxr-xr-x 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example0
-rwxr-x--- 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example1
----r-xr-x 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example2
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chmod g-rwx /tmp/example?</kbd>
-rwx---r-x 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example0
-rwx------ 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example1
-------r-x 1 alan users 0 Apr 19 11:21 /tmp/example2
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>We mentioned set user ID and set group ID permissions in several places above. You may
be wondering what this is. Normally when you run a program, it is operating under your
user account. That is, it has all the permissions that you as a user have. The same is
true for the group. When you run a program, it executes under your current group. With
set user ID permissions, you can force the program to always run as the program owner
(such as &#8220;root&#8221;). Set group ID is the same, but for the group.</p>
<p>Be careful with this, set user ID and set group ID programs can open major security
holes on your system. If you frequently set user ID programs that are owned by <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt>, you are allowing anyone to run that program and run it as <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt>. Since <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt> has no restrictions on
the system, you can see how this would pose a major security problem. In short, it's not
bad to use set user ID and set group ID permissions, just use common sense.</p>
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<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE" name="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE"></a>Chapter 9 Filesystem
Structure</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>9.1 <a
href="filesystem-structure.html#FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-OWNERSHIP">Ownership</a></dt>
<dt>9.2 <a href="filesystem-structure-permissions.html">Permissions</a></dt>
<dt>9.3 <a href="filesystem-structure-links.html">Links</a></dt>
<dt>9.4 <a href="filesystem-structure-mounting.html">Mounting Devices</a></dt>
<dt>9.5 <a href="filesystem-structure-nfs.html">NFS Mounts</a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<p>We have already discussed the directory structure in Slackware Linux. By this point,
you should be able to find files and directories that you need. But there is more to the
filesystem than just the directory structure.</p>
<p>Linux is a multiuser operating system. Every aspect of the system is multiuser, even
the filesystem. The system stores information like who owns a file and who can read it.
There are other unique parts about the filesystems, such as links and NFS mounts. This
section explains these, as well as the multiuser aspects of the filesystem.</p>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-OWNERSHIP"
name="FILESYSTEM-STRUCTURE-OWNERSHIP">9.1 Ownership</a></h1>
<p>The filesystem stores ownership information for each file and directory on the system.
This includes what user and group own a particular file. The easiest way to see this
information is with the <tt class="COMMAND">ls</tt> command:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ls -l /usr/bin/wc</kbd>
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root bin 7368 Jul 30 1999 /usr/bin/wc
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>We are interested in the third and fourth columns. These contain the username and
group name that owns this file. We see that the user &#8220;<tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt>&#8221; and the group &#8220;<tt
class="USERNAME">bin</tt>&#8221; own this file.</p>
<p>We can easily change the file owners with the <tt class="COMMAND">chown</tt>(1) (which
means &#8220;change owner&#8221;) and <tt class="COMMAND">chgrp</tt>(1) (which means
&#8220;change group&#8221;) commands. To change the file owner to <tt
class="USERNAME">daemon</tt>, we would use <tt class="COMMAND">chown</tt>:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chown daemon /usr/bin/wc</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>To change the group owner to &#8220;<tt class="USERNAME">root</tt>&#8221;, we would
use <tt class="COMMAND">chgrp</tt>:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chgrp root /usr/bin/wc</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>We can also use <tt class="COMMAND">chown</tt> to specify the user and group owners
for a file:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">chown daemon:root /usr/bin/wc</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In the above example, the user could have used a period instead of a colon. The result
would have been the same; however, the colon is considered better form. Use of the period
is deprecated and may be removed from future versions of <tt class="COMMAND">chown</tt>
to allow usernames with periods in them. These usernames tend to be very popular with
Windows Exchange Servers and are encountered most commonly in email addresses such as:
<var class="LITERAL">mr.jones@example.com</var>. In slackware, administrators are advised
to stay away from such usernames because some scripts still use the period to indicate
the user and group of a file or directory. In our example, <tt class="COMMAND">chmod</tt>
would interpret <var class="LITERAL">mr.jones</var> as user &#8220;mr&#8221; and group
&#8220;jones&#8221;.</p>
<p>File ownership is a very important part of using a Linux system, even if you are the
only user. You sometimes need to fix ownerships on files and device nodes.</p>
</div>
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<div class="GLOSSARY">
<h1><a id="GLOSSARY" name="GLOSSARY"></a>Glossary</h1>
<dl>
<dt><b>Account</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>All of the information about a user, including username, password, finger information,
UID and GID, and home directory. To create an account is to add and define a user.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Background</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Any process that is running without accepting or controlling the input of a terminal
is said to be running in the background.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Boot disk</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A floppy disk containing an operating system (in our case, the Linux kernel) from
which a computer can be started.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Compile</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>To convert source code to machine-readable &#8220;binary&#8221; code.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Daemon</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A program designed to run in the background and, without user intervention, perform a
specific task (usually providing a service).</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Darkstar</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The default hostname in Slackware; your computer will be called darkstar if you do not
specify some other name.</p>
<p>One of Patrick Volkerding's development machines, named after &#8220;Dark Star&#8221;,
a song by the Grateful Dead.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Desktop Environment</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A graphical user interface (GUI) that runs atop the X Window System and provides such
features as integrated applications, cohesive look-and-feel between programs and
components, file and window management capabilities, etc. A step beyond the simple window
manager.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Device driver</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A chunk of code in the kernel that directly controls a piece of hardware.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Device node</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A special type of file in the <tt class="FILENAME">/dev</tt> filesystem that
represents a hardware component to the operating system.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>DNS</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Domain Name Service. A system in which networked computers are given names which
translate to numerical addresses.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Domain name</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A computer's DNS name, excluding its host name.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Dot file</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>In Linux, files which are to be hidden have filenames beginning with a dot ('.').</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Dotted quad</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The format of IP addresses, so called because it consists of four numbers (range 0-255
decimal) separated by periods.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Dynamic loader</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>When programs are compiled under Linux, they usually use pieces of code (functions)
from external libraries. When such programs are run, those libraries must be found and
the required functions loaded into memory. This is the job of the dynamic loader.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Environment variable</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A variable set in the user's shell which can be referenced by that user or programs
run by that user within that shell. Environment variables are generally used to store
preferences and default parameters.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Epoch</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A period of history; in Unix, &#8220;The Epoch&#8221; begins at 00:00:00 UTC January
1, 1970. This is considered the &#8220;dawn of time&#8221; by Unix and Unix-like
operating systems, and all other time is calculated relative to this date.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Filesystem</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A representation of stored data in which &#8220;files&#8221; of data are kept
organized in &#8220;directories&#8221;. The filesystem is the nearly universal form of
representation for data stored to disks (both fixed and removable).</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Foreground</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A program that is accepting or controlling a terminal's input is said to be running in
the foreground.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Framebuffer</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A type of graphics device; in Linux, this most often refers to the software
framebuffer, which provides a standard framebuffer interface to programs while keeping
specific hardware drivers hidden from them. This layer of abstraction frees programs of
the need to speak to various hardware drivers.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>FTP</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a very popular method of transferring data between
computers.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Gateway</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A computer through which data on a network is transferred to another network.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>GID</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Group Identifier. The GID is a unique number attributed to a group of users.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Group</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Users in Unix belong to &#8220;groups&#8221;, which can contain many other users and
are used for more general access control than the existence of users alone can easily
allow.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>GUI</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Graphical User Interface. A software interface that uses rendered graphical elements
such as buttons, scrollbars, windows, etc. rather than solely text-based input and
output</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Home directory</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A user's &#8220;home directory&#8221; is the directory the user is placed in
immediately upon logging in. Users have full permissions and more or less free reign
within their home directories.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>HOWTO</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A document describing &#8220;how to&#8221; do something, such as configure a firewall
or manage users and groups. There is a large collection of these documents available from
the Linux Documentation Project.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>HTTP</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The Hypertext Transfer Protocol. HTTP is the primary protocol on which the World Wide
Web operates.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>ICMP</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Internet Control Message Protocol. A very basic networking protocol, used mostly for
pings.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Kernel</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The heart of an operating system. The kernel is the part that provides basic process
control and interfaces with the computer's hardware.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Kernel module</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A piece of kernel code, usually a driver of some sort, that can be loaded and unloaded
from memory separately from the main body of the kernel. Modules are handy when upgrading
drivers or testing kernel settings, because they can be loaded and unloaded without
rebooting.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Library</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A collection of functions which can be shared between programs.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>LILO</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The LInux LOader. LILO is the most widely-used Linux boot manager.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>LOADLIN</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>LOADLIN is a program that runs under MS DOS or Windows and boots a Linux system. It is
most commonly used on computers with multiple operating systems (including Linux and
DOS/Windows, of course).</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Man section</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Pages in the standard Unix online manual ("man") are grouped into sections for easy
reference. All C programming pages are in section 3, system administration pages in
section 5, etc.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>MBR</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The Master Boot Record. A reserved space on a hard drive where information on what to
do when booting is stored. LILO or other boot managers can be written here.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Motif</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A popular programming toolkit used in many older X programs.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>MOTD</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Message of the Day. The motd (stored in Linux in <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/motd</tt>
is a text file that is displayed to all users upon logging in. Traditionally, it is used
by the system administrator as a sort of &#8220;bulletin board&#8221; for communicating
with users.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Mount point</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>An empty directory in a filesystem where another filesystem is to be
&#8220;mounted&#8221;, or grafted on.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Nameserver</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A DNS information server. Nameservers translate DNS names to numerical IP
addresses.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Network interface</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A virtual representation of a network device provided by the kernel. Network
interfaces allow users and programs to talk to network devices.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>NFS</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The Network Filesystem. NFS allows the mounting of remote filesystems as if they were
local to your computer and thus provides a transparent method of file sharing.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Octal</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Base-8 number system, with digits 0-7.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Pager</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>An X program that allows the user to see and switch between multiple
&#8220;desktops&#8221;.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Partition</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A division of a hard drive. Filesystems exist on top of partitions.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>PPP</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Point-to-Point Protocol. PPP is used mainly for connecting via modem to an Internet
Service Provider.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Process</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A running program.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Root directory</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Represented as &#8220;/&#8221;, the root directory exists at the top of the
filesystem, with all other directories branching out beneath it in a &#8220;file
tree&#8221;.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Root disk</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The disk (usually fixed) on which the root directory is stored.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Routing table</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The set of information the kernel uses in &#8220;routing&#8221; network data around.
It contains such tidbits as where your default gateway is, which network interface is
connected to which network, etc.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Runlevel</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The overall system state as defined by init. Runlevel 6 is rebooting, runlevel 1 is
&#8220;single user mode&#8221;, runlevel 4 is an X login, etc. There are 6 available
runlevels on a Slackware system.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Secure shell</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>An encrypted (thus secure) method of logging in remotely to a computer. Many secure
shell programs are available; both a client and server are needed.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Service</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The sharing of information and/or data between programs and computers from a single
&#8220;server&#8221; to multiple &#8220;clients&#8221;. HTTP, FTP, NFS, etc. are
services.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Shadow password suite</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The shadow password suite allows encrypted passwords to be hidden from users, while
the rest of the information in the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt> file remains
visible to all. This helps prevent brute-force attempts at cracking passwords.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Shell</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Shells provide a commandline interface to the user. When you're looking at a text
prompt, you're in a shell.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Shell builtin</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A command built into the shell, as opposed to being provided by an external program.
For instance, <tt class="COMMAND">bash</tt> has a <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt>
builtin.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Signal</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Unix programs can communicate between each other using simple &#8220;signals&#8221;,
which are enumerated and usually have specific meanings. <tt class="COMMAND">kill -l</tt>
will list the available signals.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>SLIP</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Serial Line Interface Protocol. SLIP is a similar protocol to PPP, in that it's used
for connecting two machines via a serial interface.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Software package</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A program and its associated files, archived and compressed into a single file along
with any necessary scripts or information to aid in managing the installation, upgrade,
and removal of those files.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Software series</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A collection of related software packages in Slackware. All KDE packages are in the
&#8220;kde&#8221; series, networking packages in the &#8220;n&#8221; series, etc.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Source code</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The (more or less) human-readable code in which most programs are written. Source code
is compiled into &#8220;binary&#8221; code.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Standard Error (stderr)</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The Unix-standard output stream for errors. Programs write any error messages on
stderr, so that they can be separated from normal output.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Standard Input (stdin)</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The Unix-standard input stream. Data can be redirected or piped into a program's stdin
from any source.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Standard Output (stdout)</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The Unix-standard output stream. Normal text output from a program is written to
stdout, which is separate from the error messages reported on stderr and can be piped or
redirected into other programs' stdin or to a file.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Subnet</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>An IP address range that is part of a larger range. For instance, 192.168.1.0 is a
subnet of 192.168.0.0 (where 0 is a mask meaning &#8220;undefined&#8221;); it is, in
fact, the &#8220;.1&#8221; subnet.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Superblock</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>In Linux, partitions are discussed in terms of blocks. A block is 512 bytes. The
superblock is the first 512 bytes of a partition.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Supplemental disk</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>In Slackware, a floppy disk used during installation that contains neither the kernel
(which is on the boot disk) nor the root filesystem (which is on the root disk), but
additional needed files such as network modules or PCMCIA support.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Suspended process</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A process which has been frozen until killed or resumed.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Swap space</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Disk space used by the kernel as &#8220;virtual&#8221; RAM. It is slower than RAM, but
because disk space is cheaper, swap is usually more plentiful. Swap space is useful to
the kernel for holding lesser-used data and as a fallback when physical RAM is
exhausted.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Symbolic link</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A special file that simply points to the location of another file. Symbolic links are
used to avoid data duplication when a file is needed in multiple locations.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Tagfile</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A file used by the Slackware <tt class="COMMAND">setup</tt> program during
installation, which describes a set of packages to be installed.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Terminal</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A human-computer interface consisting of at least a screen (or virtual screen) and
some method of input (almost always at least a keyboard).</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Toolkit, GUI</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A GUI toolkit is a collection of libraries that provide a programmer with code to draw
&#8220;widgets&#8221; such as scrollbars, checkboxes, etc. and construct a graphical
interface. The GUI toolkit used by a program often defines its &#8220;look and
feel&#8221;.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>UID</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>User Identifier. A unique number that identifies a user to the system. UIDs are used
by most programs instead of usernames because a number is easier to deal with; usernames
are generally only used when the user has to see things happen.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>VESA</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Video Electronics Standards Association. The term &#8220;VESA&#8221; is often used to
denote a standard specified by said Association. Nearly all modern video adapters are
VESA-compliant.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Virtual terminal</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The use of software to simulate multiple terminals while using only a single set of
input/output devices (keyboard, monitor, mouse). Special keystrokes switch between
virtual terminals at a single physical terminal.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Window manager</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>An X program whose purpose is to provide a graphical interface beyond the simple
rectangle-drawing of the X Window System. Window managers generally provide titlebars,
menus for running programs, etc.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Working directory</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The directory in which a program considers itself to be while running.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>Wrapper program</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>A program whose sole purpose is to run other programs, but change their behavior in
some way by altering their environments or filtering their input.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>X server</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>The program in the X Window System which interfaces with graphics hardware and handles
the actual running of X programs.</p>
</dd>
<dt><b>X Window System</b></dt>
<dd>
<p>Network-oriented graphical interface system used on most Unix-like operating systems,
including Linux.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
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<div class="APPENDIX">
<h1><a id="GPL" name="GPL"></a>Appendix A. The GNU General Public License</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>A.1. <a href="gpl.html#AEN7088">Preamble</a></dt>
<dt>A.2. <a href="gpl.html#AEN7098">TERMS AND CONDITIONS</a></dt>
<dt>A.3. <a href="gpl.html#AEN7162">How to Apply These Terms to Your New
Programs</a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<p class="LITERALLAYOUT">GNU&nbsp;GENERAL&nbsp;PUBLIC&nbsp;LICENSE<br />
<br />
Version&nbsp;2,&nbsp;June&nbsp;1991<br />
Copyright&nbsp;(C)&nbsp;1989,&nbsp;1991&nbsp;Free&nbsp;Software&nbsp;Foundation,&nbsp;Inc.<br />
59&nbsp;Temple&nbsp;Place,&nbsp;Suite&nbsp;330,&nbsp;Boston,&nbsp;MA&nbsp;&nbsp;02111-1307&nbsp;&nbsp;USA<br />
Everyone&nbsp;is&nbsp;permitted&nbsp;to&nbsp;copy&nbsp;and&nbsp;distribute&nbsp;verbatim&nbsp;copies&nbsp;of&nbsp;this<br />
license&nbsp;document,&nbsp;but&nbsp;changing&nbsp;it&nbsp;is&nbsp;not&nbsp;allowed.</p>
<div class="SIMPLESECT">
<h4 class="SIMPLESECT"><a id="AEN7088" name="AEN7088">A.1. Preamble</a></h4>
<p>The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to share and
change it. By contrast, the GNU General Public License is intended to guarantee your
freedom to share and change free software--to make sure the software is free for all its
users. This General Public License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's
software and to any other program whose authors commit to using it. (Some other Free
Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU Library General Public License
instead.) You can apply it to your programs, too.</p>
<p>When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price. Our General
Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the freedom to distribute copies
of free software (and charge for this service if you wish), that you receive source code
or can get it if you want it, that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new
free programs; and that you know you can do these things.</p>
<p>To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to deny you
these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights. These restrictions translate to
certain responsibilities for you if you distribute copies of the software, or if you
modify it.</p>
<p>For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or for a fee,
you must give the recipients all the rights that you have. You must make sure that they,
too, receive or can get the source code. And you must show them these terms so they know
their rights.</p>
<p>We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2) offer you
this license which gives you legal permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the
software.</p>
<p>Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that everyone
understands that there is no warranty for this free software. If the software is modified
by someone else and passed on, we want its recipients to know that what they have is not
the original, so that any problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original
authors' reputations.</p>
<p>Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents. We wish to
avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will individually obtain patent
licenses, in effect making the program proprietary. To prevent this, we have made it
clear that any patent must be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at
all.</p>
<p>The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and modification
follow.</p>
</div>
<div class="SIMPLESECT">
<h4 class="SIMPLESECT"><a id="AEN7098" name="AEN7098">A.2. TERMS AND CONDITIONS</a></h4>
<p><span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR COPYING,
DISTRIBUTION AND MODIFICATION</i></span></p>
<ol type="1">
<li>
<p>This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice placed by
the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the terms of this General Public
License. The &#8220;Program&#8221;, below, refers to any such program or work, and a
&#8220;work based on the Program&#8221; means either the Program or any derivative work
under copyright law: that is to say, a work containing the Program or a portion of it,
either verbatim or with modifications and/or translated into another language.
(Hereinafter, translation is included without limitation in the term
&#8220;modification&#8221;.) Each licensee is addressed as &#8220;you&#8221;.</p>
<p>Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not covered by this
License; they are outside its scope. The act of running the Program is not restricted,
and the output from the Program is covered only if its contents constitute a work based
on the Program (independent of having been made by running the Program). Whether that is
true depends on what the Program does.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source code as you
receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously and appropriately publish on
each copy an appropriate copyright notice and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the
notices that refer to this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other
recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program.</p>
<p>You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you may at your
option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion of it, thus forming a
work based on the Program, and copy and distribute such modifications or work under the
terms of Section 1 above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:</p>
<ol type="a">
<li>
<p>You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that you changed
the files and the date of any change.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in whole or in part
contains or is derived from the Program or any part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at
no charge to all third parties under the terms of this License.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If the modified program normally reads commands interactively when run, you must cause
it, when started running for such interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or
display an announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a notice that there
is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide a warranty) and that users may
redistribute the program under these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy
of this License. (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but does not normally
print such an announcement, your work based on the Program is not required to print an
announcement.)</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole. If identifiable sections of
that work are not derived from the Program, and can be reasonably considered independent
and separate works in themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those
sections when you distribute them as separate works. But when you distribute the same
sections as part of a whole which is a work based on the Program, the distribution of the
whole must be on the terms of this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend
to the entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it.</p>
<p>Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest your rights to
work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to exercise the right to control the
distribution of derivative or collective works based on the Program.</p>
<p>In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program with the
Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of a storage or distribution
medium does not bring the other work under the scope of this License.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it, under Section 2) in
object code or executable form under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above provided that
you also do one of the following:</p>
<ol type="a">
<li>
<p>Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable source code, which must
be distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for
software interchange; or,</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three years, to give any third
party, for a charge no more than your cost of physically performing source distribution,
a complete machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be distributed
under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software
interchange; or,</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer to distribute
corresponding source code. (This alternative is allowed only for noncommercial
distribution and only if you received the program in object code or executable form with
such an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.)</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for making
modifications to it. For an executable work, complete source code means all the source
code for all modules it contains, plus any associated interface definition files, plus
the scripts used to control compilation and installation of the executable. However, as a
special exception, the source code distributed need not include anything that is normally
distributed (in either source or binary form) with the major components (compiler,
kernel, and so on) of the operating system on which the executable runs, unless that
component itself accompanies the executable.</p>
<p>If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering access to copy from a
designated place, then offering equivalent access to copy the source code from the same
place counts as distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not
compelled to copy the source along with the object code.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program except as expressly
provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or
distribute the Program is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this
License. However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such parties remain in full
compliance.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed it. However,
nothing else grants you permission to modify or distribute the Program or its derivative
works. These actions are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore,
by modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the Program), you indicate
your acceptance of this License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for copying,
distributing or modifying the Program or works based on it.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the Program), the
recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensor to copy, distribute
or modify the Program subject to these terms and conditions. You may not impose any
further restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein. You are
not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to this License.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent infringement or for
any other reason (not limited to patent issues), conditions are imposed on you (whether
by court order, agreement or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License,
they do not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot distribute so
as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this License and any other pertinent
obligations, then as a consequence you may not distribute the Program at all. For
example, if a patent license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program
by all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then the only way you
could satisfy both it and this License would be to refrain entirely from distribution of
the Program.</p>
<p>If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under any particular
circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to apply and the section as a whole
is intended to apply in other circumstances.</p>
<p>It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any patents or other
property right claims or to contest validity of any such claims; this section has the
sole purpose of protecting the integrity of the free software distribution system, which
is implemented by public license practices. Many people have made generous contributions
to the wide range of software distributed through that system in reliance on consistent
application of that system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is
willing to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot impose that
choice.</p>
<p>This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to be a consequence
of the rest of this License.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in certain countries
either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the original copyright holder who places
the Program under this License may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation
excluding those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among countries
not thus excluded. In such case, this License incorporates the limitation as if written
in the body of this License.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the General
Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the
present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.</p>
<p>Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program specifies a
version number of this License which applies to it and &#8220;any later version&#8221;,
you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that version or of
any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If the Program does not
specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published by
the Free Software Foundation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free programs whose
distribution conditions are different, write to the author to ask for permission. For
software which is copyrighted by the Free Software Foundation, write to the Free Software
Foundation; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our decision will be guided by the two
goals of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and of
promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>NO WARRANTY</p>
<p>BECAUSE THE PROGRAM IS LICENSED FREE OF CHARGE, THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM,
TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE
COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM &#8220;AS IS&#8221; WITHOUT
WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE
RISK AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM
PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR
CORRECTION.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY
COPYRIGHT HOLDER, OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MAY MODIFY AND/OR REDISTRIBUTE THE PROGRAM AS
PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL
OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM
(INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES
SUSTAINED BY YOU OR THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER
PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGES.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS</p>
</div>
<div class="SIMPLESECT">
<h4 class="SIMPLESECT"><a id="AEN7162" name="AEN7162">A.3. How to Apply These Terms to
Your New Programs</a></h4>
<p>If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest possible use to
the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it free software which everyone can
redistribute and change under these terms.</p>
<p>To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to attach them to
the start of each source file to most effectively convey the exclusion of warranty; and
each file should have at least the &#8220;copyright&#8221; line and a pointer to where
the full notice is found.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
&lt;one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.&gt;
Copyright (C) &lt;year&gt; &lt;name of author&gt;
This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
(at your option) any later version.
This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the
GNU General Public License for more details.
You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA 02111-1307 USA
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.</p>
<p>If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this when it starts
in an interactive mode:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) year name of author
Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the appropriate parts of
the General Public License. Of course, the commands you use may be called something other
than `show w' and `show c'; they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items--whatever suits
your program.</p>
<p>You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your school, if
any, to sign a &#8220;copyright disclaimer&#8221; for the program, if necessary. Here is
a sample; alter the names:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program
`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker.
&lt;signature of Ty Coon&gt;, 1 April 1989
Ty Coon, President of Vice
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program into
proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine library, you may consider it more
useful to permit linking proprietary applications with the library. If this is what you
want to do, use the GNU Library General Public License instead of this License.</p>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="HELP-ONLINE" name="HELP-ONLINE">2.2 Online Help</a></h1>
<p>In addition to the documentation provided and installable with the Slackware Linux
Operating System, there are a vast multitude of online resources available for you to
learn from as well.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="HELP-ONLINE-OFFICIAL" name="HELP-ONLINE-OFFICIAL">2.2.1 The
Official Website and Help Forums</a></h2>
<p><a href="http://www.slackware.com" target="_top">The Official Slackware
Website</a></p>
<p>The Official Slackware Linux website is sometimes out of date, but still contains
information relevant to the latest Slackware versions. At one time an active help forum
existed there before a horde of trolls, troublemakers, and whiners descended on the
forum. Maintaining the forum was beginning to be too much work, and so Pat shut it down.
One can find that old forum back up and running complete with searchable archives of the
old data at <a href="http://www.userlocal.com/phorum/"
target="_top">http://www.userlocal.com/phorum/</a>.</p>
<p>After the forums were taken down on <a href="http://slackware.com"
target="_top">http://slackware.com</a>, several other sites sprang up that offered forum
support for Slackware. After much thought, Pat chose to endorse <a
href="http://www.linuxquestions.org" target="_top">www.linuxquestions.org</a> as the official
forum for Slackware Linux.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="HELP-ONLINE-EMAIL" name="HELP-ONLINE-EMAIL">2.2.2 E-mail
Support</a></h2>
<p>Everyone who purchases an official CD set is entitled to free installation support via
e-mail from the developer. That having been said, please keep in mind that we, the
developers, (and a vast majority of users) of Slackware are of &#8220;The Old
School&#8221;. That means that we prefer to help those who have a sincere interest and
are willing to help themselves in the process. We will always do our best to help
everyone who emails us with support questions. However, Please check your documentation
and the website (especially the FAQs and maybe some of the forums listed below) before
e-mailing. You may get a faster answer that way, and the less e-mail we have to answer,
obviously the sooner we will be of assistance to those that need it.</p>
<p>The e-mail address for technical support is: <var
class="LITERAL">support@slackware.com</var>. Other e-mail addresses and contact
information are listed on the website.</p>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN535" name="AEN535">2.2.2.1 Slackware Linux Project Mailing
Lists</a></h3>
<p>We have several mailing lists, available in digest and normal forms. Check the
instructions for how to subscribe.</p>
<p>To subscribe to a mailing list, email:</p>
<p><var class="LITERAL">majordomo@slackware.com</var></p>
<p>with the phrase &#8220;<var class="LITERAL">subscribe <var class="REPLACEABLE">[name
of list]</var></var>&#8221; in the body of the email. The list choices are described
below (use one the names below for the name of the list).</p>
<p>Archives of the mailing list can be found on Slackware's website at:</p>
<p><var class="LITERAL">http://slackware.com/lists/archive/</var></p>
<div class="VARIABLELIST">
<dl>
<dt><var class="LITERAL">slackware-announce</var></dt>
<dd>
<p>The <var class="LITERAL">slackware-announce</var> mailing list is for announcements of
new versions, major updates and other general information.</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="LITERAL">slackware-security</var></dt>
<dd>
<p>The <var class="LITERAL">slackware-security</var> mailing list is for announcements
relating to security issues. Any exploits or other vulnerabilities directly pertaining to
Slackware will get posted to this list immediately.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<p>These lists are also available in digest format. This means that you get one large
message per day instead of several messages throughout the day. Since the slackware
mailing lists do not allow users to post, and the lists are such low traffic, most users
find little advantage in the digest lists. Still, they are available if you want them by
subscribing to <var class="LITERAL">slackware-announce-digest</var> or <var
class="LITERAL">slackware-security-digest</var>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="HELP-ONLINE-NONOFFICIAL" name="HELP-ONLINE-NONOFFICIAL">2.2.3
Non-Official Websites and Help Forums</a></h2>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN571" name="AEN571">2.2.3.1 Websites</a></h3>
<div class="VARIABLELIST">
<dl>
<dt><a href="http://www.google.com" target="_top">Google</a></dt>
<dd>
<p>The Kung-Fu Master of Search Engines. When you absolutely, positively gotta find every
last kernel of information on a subject: Accept no substitutes.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="http://www.google.com/linux" target="_top">Google:Linux</a></dt>
<dd>
<p>Linux-Specific searches</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="http://www.google.com/bsd" target="_top">Google:BSD</a></dt>
<dd>
<p>BSD-Specific searches. Slackware is so generic as a Unix work-a-like operating system
that one can as often as not find very detailed information that is almost 100% relevant
to Slackware here. Many times a BSD search reveals far more technical information than
the often PR-related Linux searches.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="http://groups.google.com" target="_top">Google:Groups</a></dt>
<dd>
<p>Search through decades of Usenet posts for your pearls of wisdom.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="http://userlocal.com" target="_top">http://userlocal.com</a></dt>
<dd>
<p>A virtual treasure-trove of knowledge, good advice, first-hand experience and
interesting articles. Often the first place you'll hear about new developments in the
world of Slackware.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN601" name="AEN601">2.2.3.2 Web-based Resources</a></h3>
<div class="VARIABLELIST">
<dl>
<dt><a href="http://www.linuxquestions.org/questions/forumdisplay.php?forumid=14"
target="_top">linuxquestions.org</a></dt>
<dd>
<p>The officially sanctioned web-forum for Slackware users.</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="http://forums.linuxiso.org/viewforum.php?f=25" target="_top">LinuxISO.org
Slackware Forum</a></dt>
<dd>
<p>&#8220;A place to download and get help with Linux.&#8221;</p>
</dd>
<dt><a href="http://wombat.san-francisco.ca.us/perl/fom"
target="_top">alt.os.linux.slackware FAQ</a></dt>
<dd>
<p>Another FAQ</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN620" name="AEN620">2.2.3.3 Usenet Groups (NNTP)</a></h3>
<p>Usenet has long been a place for geeks to gather and help one another. There are few
newsgroups dedicated to Slackware Linux, but they tend to be filled with very
knowledgeable people.</p>
<p><var class="LITERAL">alt.os.linux.slackware</var></p>
<p><var class="LITERAL">alt.os.linux.slackware</var>, better known as aols (not to be
confused with <span class="TRADEMARK">AOL</span>&reg;!) is one of the most active places
to find technical help with Slackware problems. Like every Usenet newsgroup, a few
unhelpful participants (&#8220;trolls&#8221;) can mar the experience with constant
arguing. Learning to ignore the trolls and identifying the truly helpful people is key to
making the most of this resource.</p>
</div>
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<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="HELP" name="HELP"></a>Chapter 2 Help</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>2.1 <a href="help.html#HELP-SYSTEM">System Help</a></dt>
<dt>2.2 <a href="help-online.html">Online Help</a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<p>Often there are times when you might need help with a specific command, setting up a
program, or getting a piece of hardware to work. Maybe you simply want to understand a
given command better, or see what other options are available to use with it. Luckily,
there are a variety of ways that you can get the help you're looking for. When you
install Slackware you have the option of installing packages from the &#8220;F&#8221;
series which includes FAQs and HOWTOs. Programs also come with help about their options,
configuration files, and usage.</p>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="HELP-SYSTEM" name="HELP-SYSTEM">2.1 System Help</a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="HELP-SYSTEM-MAN" name="HELP-SYSTEM-MAN">2.1.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">man</tt></a></h2>
<p>The <tt class="COMMAND">man</tt> command (short for &#8220;manual&#8221;) is the
traditional form of online documentation in Unix and Linux operating systems. Comprised
of specially formatted files, the &#8220;man pages&#8221;, are written for the vast
majority of commands and are distributed with the software itself. Executing <tt
class="COMMAND">man somecommand</tt> will display the man page for (naturally) the
command specified, in our example this would be the imaginary program <tt
class="COMMAND">somecommand</tt>.</p>
<p>As you might imagine, the amount of man pages can quickly add up, becoming overly
confusing and seriously complicated, even for an advanced user. So, for this reason, man
pages are grouped into enumerated sections. This system has been around for a very long
time; enough so that you will often see commands, programs, and even programming library
functions referred to with their man section number.</p>
<p>For example:</p>
<p>You might see a reference to <tt class="COMMAND">man</tt>(1). The numbering tells you
that &#8220;<tt class="COMMAND">man</tt>&#8221; is documented in section 1 (user
commands); you can specify that you want the section 1 man page for &#8220;man&#8221;
with the command <tt class="COMMAND">man 1 man</tt>. Specifying the section that man
should look in is useful in the case of multiple items with the same name.</p>
<div class="TABLE"><a id="AEN409" name="AEN409"></a>
<p><b>Table 2-1. Man Page Sections</b></p>
<table border="0" frame="void" width="100%" class="CALSTABLE">
<col width="25%" />
<col width="75%" />
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Section</th>
<th>Contents</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Section 1</td>
<td>user commands (intro only)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Section 2</td>
<td>system calls</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Section 3</td>
<td>C library calls</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Section 4</td>
<td>devices (e.g., <tt class="FILENAME">hd</tt>, <tt class="FILENAME">sd</tt>)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Section 5</td>
<td>file formats and protocols (e.g., wtmp, <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt>,
nfs)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Section 6</td>
<td>games (intro only)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Section 7</td>
<td>conventions, macro packages, etc. (e.g., nroff, ascii)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Section 8</td>
<td>system administration (intro only)</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p>In addition to <tt class="COMMAND">man</tt>(1), there are the commands <tt
class="COMMAND">whatis</tt>(1) and <tt class="COMMAND">apropos</tt>(1) available to you,
whose shared purpose is to make it easier to find information in the man system.</p>
<p>The command <tt class="COMMAND">whatis</tt> gives a very brief description of system
commands, somewhat in the style of a pocket command reference.</p>
<p>Example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">whatis whatis</kbd>
whatis (1) - search the whatis database for complete words
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The command <tt class="COMMAND">apropos</tt> is used to search for a man page
containing a given keyword.</p>
<p>Example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">apropos wav</kbd>
cdda2wav (1) - a sampling utility that dumps CD audio data into wav sound files
netwave_cs (4) - Xircom Creditcard Netwave device driver
oggdec (1) - simple decoder, Ogg Vorbis file to PCM audio file (WAV or RAW)
wavelan (4) - AT&amp;T GIS WaveLAN ISA device driver
wavelan_cs (4) - AT&amp;T GIS WaveLAN PCMCIA device driver
wvlan_cs (4) - Lucent WaveLAN/IEEE 802.11 device driver
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If you'd like further information on any of these commands, read their man pages for
the details. ;)</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="HELP-SYSTEM-DOC" name="HELP-SYSTEM-DOC">2.1.2 The <tt
class="FILENAME">/usr/doc</tt> Directory</a></h2>
<p>The source for most packages that we build comes with some sort of documentation:
README files, usage instructions, license files, etc. Any sort of documentation that
comes with the source is included and installed on your system in the <tt
class="FILENAME">/usr/doc</tt> directory. Each program will (usually) install its own
documentation in the order of:</p>
<p><tt class="FILENAME">/usr/doc/<var
class="REPLACEABLE">$program-$version</var></tt></p>
<p>Where <var class="REPLACEABLE">$program</var> is the name of the program you are
wanting to read about, and <var class="REPLACEABLE">$version</var> is (obviously) the
appropriate version of software package installed on your system.</p>
<p>For example, to read the documentation for the command <tt class="COMMAND">man</tt>(1)
you would want to <tt class="COMMAND">cd</tt> to:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cd /usr/doc/man-<var
class="REPLACEABLE">$version</var></kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If reading the appropriate man page(s) doesn't provide you with enough information, or
address what you're looking for in particular, the <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/doc</tt>
directory should be your next stop.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="HELP-SYSTEM-HOWTO" name="HELP-SYSTEM-HOWTO">2.1.3 HOWTOs and
mini-HOWTOs</a></h2>
<p>It is in the truest spirit of the Open Source community that brings us to the
HOWTO/mini-HOWTO collection. These files are exactly what they sound like - documents and
guides describing how to do stuff. If you installed the HOWTO collection, the HOWTOs will
be installed to <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/doc/Linux-HOWTOs</tt> and the mini-HOWTOs to
<tt class="FILENAME">/usr/doc/Linux-mini-HOWTOs</tt>.</p>
<p>Also included in the same package series is a collection of FAQs, which is an acronym
which stands for</p>
<div class="INFORMALTABLE"><a id="AEN497" name="AEN497"></a>
<table border="0" frame="void" class="CALSTABLE">
<col />
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">F</i></span>requently</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">A</i></span>sked</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">Q</i></span>uestions</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p>These documents are written in a &#8220;Question and answer&#8221; style for
(surprise) Frequently Asked Questions. The FAQs can often be a very useful place to look
if you're just looking for a &#8220;Quick Fix&#8221; to something. If you decide to
install the FAQs during setup, you will find them installed to the <tt
class="FILENAME">/usr/doc/Linux-FAQs</tt> directory.</p>
<p>These files are well worth reading whenever you're not quite sure how to proceed with
something. They cover an amazing range of topics, more often than not in a surprisingly
detailed manner. Good stuff!</p>
</div>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="INSTALLATION-PARTITIONING" name="INSTALLATION-PARTITIONING">3.3
Partitioning</a></h1>
<p>After booting from your preferred media, you will need to partition your hard disk.
The disk partition is where the Linux filesystem will be created and is where Slackware
will be installed. At the very minimum we recommend creating two partitions; one for your
root filesystem (<tt class="FILENAME">/</tt>) and one for swap space.</p>
<p>After the root disk finishes loading, it will present you with a login prompt. Log in
as root (there is no password). At the shell prompt, run either <tt
class="COMMAND">cfdisk</tt>(8) or <tt class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt>(8). The <tt
class="COMMAND">cfdisk</tt> program provides a more user-friendly interface than the
regular <tt class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt> program, but does lack some features. We will
briefly explain the <tt class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt> program below.</p>
<p>Begin by running <tt class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt> for your hard disk. In Linux, the hard
disks do not have drive letters, but are represented by a file. The first IDE hard disk
(primary master) is <tt class="FILENAME">/dev/hda</tt>, the primary slave is <tt
class="FILENAME">/dev/hdb</tt>, and so on. SCSI disks follow the same type system, but
are in the form of <tt class="FILENAME">/dev/sd<var class="REPLACEABLE">X</var></tt>. You
will need to start <tt class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt> and pass it your hard disk:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">fdisk /dev/hda</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Like all good Unix programs, <tt class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt> gives you a prompt
(thought you were getting a menu, right?). The first thing you should do is examine your
current partitions. We do that by typing <kbd class="USERINPUT">p</kbd> at the <tt
class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt> prompt:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Command (m for help): <kbd class="USERINPUT">p</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will display all sorts of information about your current partitions. Most people
pick a free drive to install to and then remove any existing partitions on it to create
room for the Linux partitions.</p>
<div class="WARNING">
<table class="WARNING" width="100%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="25" align="CENTER" valign="TOP"><img src="./imagelib/admon/warning.png"
hspace="5" alt="Warning" /></td>
<td align="LEFT" valign="TOP">
<p>IT IS VERY IMPORTANT THAT YOU BACK UP ANY INFORMATION YOU WANT TO SAVE BEFORE
DESTROYING THE PARTITION IT LIVES ON.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p>There is no easy way to recover from deleting a partition, so always back up before
playing with them.</p>
<p>Looking at the table of partition information you should see a partition number, the
size of the partition, and its type. There's more information, but don't worry about that
for now. We are going to delete all of the partitions on this drive to create the Linux
ones. We run the <kbd class="USERINPUT">d</kbd> command to delete those:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Command (m for help): <kbd class="USERINPUT">d</kbd>
Partition number (1-4): <kbd class="USERINPUT">1</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This process should be continued for each of the partitions. After deleting the
partitions we are ready to create the Linux ones. We have decided to create one partition
for our root filesystem and one for swap. It is worth noting that Unix partitioning
schemes are the subject of many flame wars, and that most users will tell you the best
way to do it. At a minimum, you should create one partition for <tt
class="FILENAME">/</tt> and one for swap. Over time, you'll develop a method that works
well for you.</p>
<p>I use two basic partition schemes. The first is for a desktop. I make 4 partitions,
<tt class="FILENAME">/</tt>, <tt class="FILENAME">/home</tt>, <tt
class="FILENAME">/usr/local</tt>, and swap. This lets me re-install or upgrade the entire
installation under <tt class="FILENAME">/</tt> without wiping out my data files under
/home or my custom compiled applications under <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/local</tt>. For
servers, I often replace the <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/local</tt> partition with a <tt
class="FILENAME">/var</tt> partition. Many different servers store information on that
partition and having it kept separate from <tt class="FILENAME">/</tt> has certain
performance benefits. For now, we're sticking with just two partitions: <tt
class="FILENAME">/</tt> and swap.</p>
<p>Now we create the partitions with the <kbd class="USERINPUT">n</kbd> command:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Command (m for help): <kbd class="USERINPUT">n</kbd>
Command action
e extended
p primary partition (1-4)
<kbd class="USERINPUT">p</kbd>
Partition number (1-4):<kbd class="USERINPUT">1</kbd>
First cylinder (0-1060, default 0):<kbd class="USERINPUT">0</kbd>
Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (0-1060, default 1060):<kbd
class="USERINPUT">+64M</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You need to make sure you create primary partitions. The first partition is going to
be our swap partition. We tell fdisk to make partition number 1 a primary partition. We
start it at cylinder 0 and for the ending cylinder we type +64M. This will give us a 64
megabyte partition for swap. (The size of the swap partition you need actually depends on
the amount of RAM you have. It is conventional wisdom that a swap space double the size
of your RAM should be created.) Then we define primary partition number 2 starting at the
first available cylinder and going all the way to the end of the drive.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Command (m for help):<kbd class="USERINPUT">n</kbd>
Command action
e extended
p primary partition (1-4)
<kbd class="USERINPUT">p</kbd>
Partition number (1-4):<kbd class="USERINPUT">2</kbd>
First cylinder (124-1060, default 124):<kbd class="USERINPUT">124</kbd>
Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (124-1060, default 1060):<kbd
class="USERINPUT">1060</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>We are almost done. We need to change the type of the first partition to type 82
(Linux swap). Type <kbd class="USERINPUT">t</kbd> to change the type, select the first
partition, and type <var class="LITERAL">82</var>. Before writing your changes to the
disk, you should look at the new partition table one last time. Use the <kbd
class="USERINPUT">p</kbd> in <tt class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt> to display the partition
table. If everything looks good, type <kbd class="USERINPUT">w</kbd> to write your
changes to the disk and quit <tt class="COMMAND">fdisk</tt>.</p>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="INSTALLATION-REQUIREMENTS" name="INSTALLATION-REQUIREMENTS">3.2
System Requirements</a></h1>
<p>An easy Slackware installation requires, at minimum, the following:</p>
<div class="TABLE"><a id="AEN706" name="AEN706"></a>
<p><b>Table 3-2. System Requirements</b></p>
<table border="0" frame="void" class="CALSTABLE">
<col />
<col />
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Hardware</th>
<th>Requirement</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Processor</td>
<td>586</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>RAM</td>
<td>32 MB</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Disk Space</td>
<td>1GB</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Media Drive</td>
<td>4x CD-ROM</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<p>If you have the bootable CD, you will probably not need a floppy drive. Of course, it
stands to reason that if you don't possess a CD-ROM drive, you will need a floppy drive
to do a network install. A network card is required for an NFS install. See the section
called NFS for more information.</p>
<p>The disk space requirement is somewhat tricky. The 1GB recommendation is usually safe
for a minimal install, but if you do a full install, you will need around two gigabytes
of available hard disk space plus additional space for personal files.. Most users don't
do a full install. In fact, many run Slackware on as little as 100MB of hard disk
space.</p>
<p>Slackware can be installed to systems with less RAM, smaller hard drives, and weaker
CPUs, but doing so will require a little elbow grease. If you're up for a little work,
take a look at the <tt class="FILENAME">LOWMEM.TXT</tt> file in the distribution tree for
a few helpful hints.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="INSTALLATION-SOFTWARE-SERIES"
name="INSTALLATION-SOFTWARE-SERIES">3.2.1 The Software Series</a></h2>
<p>For reasons of simplicity, Slackware has historically been divided into software
series. Once called &#8220;disk sets&#8221; because they were designed for floppy-based
installation, the software series are now used primarily to categorize the packages
included in Slackware. Today, floppy installation is no longer possible.</p>
<p>The following is a brief description of each software series.</p>
<div class="TABLE"><a id="AEN746" name="AEN746"></a>
<p><b>Table 3-3. Software Series</b></p>
<table border="0" frame="void" class="CALSTABLE">
<col width="1*" />
<col width="4*" />
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Series</th>
<th>Contents</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>A</td>
<td>The base system. Contains enough software to get up and running and have a text
editor and basic communication program.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>AP</td>
<td>Various applications that do not require the X Window System.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>D</td>
<td>Program development tools. Compilers, debuggers, interpreters, and man pages are all
here.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>E</td>
<td>GNU Emacs.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>F</td>
<td>FAQs, HOWTOs, and other miscellaneous documentation.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>GNOME</td>
<td>The GNOME desktop environment.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>K</td>
<td>The source code for the Linux kernel.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>KDE</td>
<td>The K Desktop Environment. An X environment which shares a lot of look-and-feel
features with MacOS and Windows. The Qt library, which KDE requires, is also in this
series.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>KDEI</td>
<td>Internationalization packages for the KDE desktop.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>L</td>
<td>Libraries. Dynamically linked libraries required by many other programs.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>N</td>
<td>Networking programs. Daemons, mail programs, telnet, news readers, and so on.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>T</td>
<td>teTeX document formatting system.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>TCL</td>
<td>The Tool Command Language. Tk, TclX, and TkDesk.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>X</td>
<td>The base X Window System.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>XAP</td>
<td>X Applications that are not part of a major desktop environment (for example,
Ghostscript and Netscape).</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Y</td>
<td>BSD Console games</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="INSTALLATION-METHODS" name="INSTALLATION-METHODS">3.2.2
Installation Methods</a></h2>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="INSTALLATION-INSTALLATION-METHODS-FLOPPY"
name="INSTALLATION-INSTALLATION-METHODS-FLOPPY">3.2.2.1 Floppy</a></h3>
<p>While it was once possible to install all of Slackware Linux from floppy disks, the
increasing size of software packages (indeed, of some individual programs) has forced the
abandonment of the floppy install. As late as Slackware version 7.1 a partial install was
possible using floppy disks. The A and N series could be nearly entirely installed,
providing a base system from which to install the rest of the distribution. If you are
considering a floppy install (typically on older hardware), it is typically recommended
to find another way, or use an older release. Slackware 4.0 is still very popular for
this reason, as is 7.0.</p>
<p>Please note that floppy disks are still required for a CD-ROM install if you do not
have a bootable CD, as well as for an NFS install.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="INSTALLATION-INSTALLLATION-METHODS-CDROM"
name="INSTALLATION-INSTALLLATION-METHODS-CDROM">3.2.2.2 CD-ROM</a></h3>
<p>If you have the bootable CD, available in the official disc set published by Slackware
Linux, Inc. (see the section called Getting Slackware), a CD-based installation will be a
bit simpler for you. If not, you will need to boot from floppies. Also, if you have
special hardware that makes usage of the kernel on the bootable CD problematic, you may
need to use specialized floppies.</p>
<p>As of Slackware version 8.1, a new method is used for creating the bootable CDs, which
does not work as well with certain flaky BIOS chips (it is worth noting that most all
Linux CDs suffer from this these days). If that is the case, we recommend booting from a
floppy disk.</p>
<p><a
href="installation-requirements.html#INSTALLATION-INSTALLATION-METHODS-BOOTDISK">Section
3.2.3</a> and <a
href="installation-requirements.html#INSTALLATION-SUPPLEMENTAL-DISK">Section 3.2.5</a>
provide information on choosing and creating floppies from which to boot, should this be
necessary.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN823" name="AEN823">3.2.2.3 NFS</a></h3>
<p>NFS (the Network File System) is a way of making filesystems available to remote
machines. An NFS install allows you to install Slackware from another computer on your
network. The machine from which you are installing needs to be configured to export the
Slackware distribution tree to the machine to which you're installing. This, of course,
involves some knowledge of NFS, which is covered in <a
href="network-configuration-nfs.html">Section 5.6</a>.</p>
<p>It is possible to perform an NFS install via such methods as PLIP (over a parallel
port), SLIP, and PPP (though not over a modem connection). However, we recommend the use
of a network card if available. After all, installing an operating system through your
printer port is going to be a very, very slow process.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="INSTALLATION-INSTALLATION-METHODS-BOOTDISK"
name="INSTALLATION-INSTALLATION-METHODS-BOOTDISK">3.2.3 Boot Disk</a></h2>
<p>The boot disk is the floppy you actually boot from to begin the installation. It
contains a compressed kernel image which is used to control the hardware during
installation. Therefore, it is very much required (unless you're booting from CD, as is
discussed in the section called CD-ROM). The boot disks are located in the <tt
class="FILENAME">bootdisks/</tt> directory in the distribution tree.</p>
<p>There are more Slackware boot disks than you can shake a stick at (which is to say
about 16). A complete list of boot disks, with a description of each, is available in the
Slackware distribution tree in the file <tt class="FILENAME">bootdisks/README.TXT</tt>.
However, most people are able to use the <tt class="FILENAME">bare.i</tt> (for IDE
devices) or <tt class="FILENAME">scsi.s</tt> (for SCSI devices) boot disk image.</p>
<p>See <a href="installation-requirements.html#INSTALLATION-MAKING-THE-DISKS">Section
3.2.6</a> for instructions on making a disk from an image.</p>
<p>After booting, you will be prompted to insert the root disk. We recommend that you
just humor the boot disk and play along.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="INSTALLATION-INSTALLATION-METHODS-ROOTDISK"
name="INSTALLATION-INSTALLATION-METHODS-ROOTDISK">3.2.4 Root Disk</a></h2>
<p>The root disks contain the setup program and a filesystem which is used during
installation. They are also required. The root disk images are located in the directory
rootdisks in the distribution tree. You'll have to make two root disks from the <tt
class="FILENAME">install.1</tt> and <tt class="FILENAME">install.2</tt> images. Here you
can also find the <tt class="FILENAME">network.dsk</tt>, <tt
class="FILENAME">pcmcia.dsk</tt>, <tt class="FILENAME">rescue.dsk</tt>, and <tt
class="FILENAME">sbootmgr.dsk</tt> disks.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="INSTALLATION-SUPPLEMENTAL-DISK"
name="INSTALLATION-SUPPLEMENTAL-DISK">3.2.5 Supplemental Disk</a></h2>
<p>A supplemental disk is needed if you are performing an NFS install or installing to a
system with PCMCIA devices. Supplemental disks are in the rootdsks directory in the
distribution tree, with the filenames <tt class="FILENAME">network.dsk</tt> and <tt
class="FILENAME">pcmcia.dsk</tt>. Recently other supplemental disks such as <tt
class="FILENAME">rescue.dsk</tt> and <tt class="FILENAME">sbootmgr.dsk</tt> have been
added. The rescue disk is a small floppy root image that runs in a 4MB RAM drive. It
includes some basic networking utilities and the vi editor for quick fixes on busted
machines. The <tt class="FILENAME">sbootmgr.dsk</tt> disk is used to boot other devices.
Boot off this disk if your bootable CD-ROM drive doesn't want to boot the Slackware CDs.
It will prompt you for different things to boot and may offer a convenient way to work
around a buggy BIOS.</p>
<p>The root disk will instruct you on the use of supplemental disks when it is
loaded.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="INSTALLATION-MAKING-THE-DISKS"
name="INSTALLATION-MAKING-THE-DISKS">3.2.6 Making the Disks</a></h2>
<p>Once you've selected a boot disk image, you need to put it on a floppy. The process is
slightly different depending on which operating system you're using to make the disks. If
you're running Linux (or pretty much any Unix-like OS) you'll need to use the <tt
class="COMMAND">dd</tt>(1) command. Assuming <tt class="FILENAME">bare.i</tt> is your
disk image file and your floppy drive is <tt class="FILENAME">/dev/fd0</tt>, the command
to make a <tt class="FILENAME">bare.i</tt> floppy is:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">%</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">dd if=bare.i of=/dev/fd0</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If you're running a Microsoft OS, you'll need to use the <tt
class="FILENAME">RAWRITE.EXE</tt> program, which is included in the distribution tree in
the same directories as the floppy images. Again assuming that <tt
class="FILENAME">bare.i</tt> is your disk image file and your floppy drive is <tt
class="FILENAME">A:</tt>, open a DOS prompt and type the following:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
C:\ <kbd class="USERINPUT">rawrite a: bare.i</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="INSTALLATION-SETUP" name="INSTALLATION-SETUP">3.4 The <tt
class="COMMAND">setup</tt> Program</a></h1>
<p>Once you have created your partitions, you are ready to install Slackware. The next
step in the installation process is running the <tt class="COMMAND">setup</tt>(8)
program. To do so, simply type <tt class="COMMAND">setup</tt> at the shell prompt. <tt
class="COMMAND">setup</tt> is a menu-driven system for actually installing the Slackware
packages and configuring your system.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN981" name="AEN981"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-program-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>The setup process goes something like this: You step through each option in the <tt
class="COMMAND">setup</tt> program, in the order they are listed. (Of course, you are
free to do things in almost any order you choose, but chances are it isn't going to work
out very well.) Menu items are selected using the up and down arrow keys, and the
&#8220;Okay&#8221; and &#8220;Cancel&#8221; buttons can be chosen by using the left and
right arrow keys. Alternatively, each option has a corresponding key, which is
highlighted in the option name. Options which are flaggable (those indicated with a <var
class="LITERAL">[X]</var>) are toggled using the spacebar.</p>
<p>Of course, all of that is described in the &#8220;help&#8221; section of <tt
class="COMMAND">setup</tt>, but we believe in giving our readers their money's worth.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN993" name="AEN993">3.4.1 HELP</a></h2>
<p>If this is your first time installing Slackware, you might want to take a look at the
help screen. It will give a description of each part of <tt class="COMMAND">setup</tt>
(much like the one we're writing now, but less involved) and instructions for navigating
the rest of the install.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN997" name="AEN997"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-help-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1001" name="AEN1001">3.4.2 KEYMAP</a></h2>
<p>If you require a keymap other than the United States &#8220;qwerty&#8221; layout, you
may want to take a look at this section. It offers a number of alternate layouts for your
keyboarding enjoyment.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1009" name="AEN1009"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-keymap-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1013" name="AEN1013">3.4.3 ADDSWAP</a></h2>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1015" name="AEN1015"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-swap-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>If you created a swap partition (back in <a
href="installation-partitioning.html">Section 3.3</a>), this section will allow you to
enable it. It will autodetect and display the swap partitions on your hard drive,
allowing you to select one to format and enable.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1023" name="AEN1023">3.4.4 TARGET</a></h2>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1025" name="AEN1025"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-target-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>The target section is where your other (non-swap) partitions are formatted and mapped
to filesystem mount points. A list of the partitions on your hard disk will be displayed.
For each partition, you will be given the option of whether to format that partition or
not. Depending on the kernel used, you can choose between reiserfs (the default), ext3,
ext2, jfs, and xfs. Most people use either reiserfs or ext3. In the near future we may
see support for reiserfs4 slip in.</p>
<p>The first option in the target section is the selection of a partition on which to
install your root (<tt class="FILENAME">/</tt>) filesystem. After that, you will be able
to map other partitions to filesystems as you choose. (For instance, you may want your
third partition, say <tt class="FILENAME">/dev/hda3</tt>, to be your home filesystem.
This is just an example; map the partitions as you see fit.)</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1035" name="AEN1035">3.4.5 SOURCE</a></h2>
<p>The source section is where you select the source media from which you are installing
Slackware. Currently there are four sources to choose from. These are CD-ROM, NFS, or a
premounted directory.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1038" name="AEN1038"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-source-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>The CD-ROM selection enables a CD-ROM based installation. It will offer the option of
scanning for a CD-ROM drive or displaying a list from which you can pick your drive type.
Make sure you have the Slackware CD in your drive before allowing it to scan.</p>
<p>The NFS selection prompts for your network information and the network information for
your NFS server. The NFS server must be set up in advance. Also note that you cannot use
hostnames, you must use the IP addresses for both your machine and the NFS server (there
is no name resolver on the setup disk). Naturally you must have used the <tt
class="FILENAME">network.dsk</tt> floppy to add support for your network controller.</p>
<p>The premounted directory offers the most flexibility. You can use this method to
install from things such as Jaz disks, NFS mounts over PLIP, and FAT filesystems. Mount
the filesystem to a location of your choosing before running setup, then specify that
location here.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1054" name="AEN1054">3.4.6 SELECT</a></h2>
<p>The select option allows you to select the software series that you wish to install.
These series are described in <a
href="installation-requirements.html#INSTALLATION-SOFTWARE-SERIES">Section 3.2.1</a>.
Please note that you must install the A series to have a working base system. All other
series are optional.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1058" name="AEN1058"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-select-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1062" name="AEN1062">3.4.7 INSTALL</a></h2>
<p>Assuming that you have gone through the &#8220;target&#8221;, &#8220;source&#8221;,
and &#8220;select&#8221; options, the <var class="OPTION">install</var> option will allow
you to select packages from your chosen software series. If not, it will prompt you to go
back and complete the other sections of the setup program. This option allows you to
select from six different installation methods: <var class="OPTION">full</var>, <var
class="OPTION">newbie</var>, <var class="OPTION">menu</var>, <var
class="OPTION">expert</var>, <var class="OPTION">custom</var>, and <var
class="OPTION">tag path</var>.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1077" name="AEN1077"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-install-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>The <var class="OPTION">full</var> option will install every package from all the
software series that you chose in the &#8220;select&#8221; section. There is no further
prompting. This is the easiest installation method, since you do not need to make any
decisions on the actual packages to install. Of course, this option also takes up the
most hard drive space.</p>
<p>The next option is <var class="OPTION">newbie</var>. This option installs all of the
required packages in the selected series. For all other packages, it offers a prompt
where you can select &#8220;Yes&#8221;, &#8220;No&#8221;, or &#8220;Skip&#8221;. Yes and
No do the obvious, while Skip will go ahead to the next software series. Additionally,
you will see a description and size requirement for each package to help you decide if
you need it. We recommend this option for new users, as it ensures that you get all the
required packages installed. However, it is a little slow because of the prompting.</p>
<p><var class="OPTION">Menu</var> is a faster and more advanced version of the newbie
option. For each series, a menu is displayed, from which you can select all the
non-required packages you want to install. Required packages are not displayed on this
menu.</p>
<p>For the more advanced user, install offers the <var class="OPTION">expert</var>
option. This allows you complete control over what packages get installed. You can
deselect packages that are absolutely required, resulting in a broken system. On the
other hand, you can control exactly what goes onto your system. Simply select the
packages from each series that you want installed. This is not recommended for the new
user, as it is quite easy to shoot yourself in the foot.</p>
<p>The <var class="OPTION">custom</var> and <var class="OPTION">tag path</var> options
are also for advanced users. These options allow you to install based upon custom tag
files that you created in the distribution tree. This is useful for installing to large
numbers of machines fairly quickly. For more information on using tag files, see <a
href="package-management-making-tags-and-tagfiles.html">Section 18.4</a>.</p>
<p>After selecting your installation method, one of a few things will happen. If you
selected full or menu, a menu screen will appear, allowing you to select the packages to
be installed. If you selected full, packages will immediately start getting installed to
the target. If you selected newbie, packages will be installed until an optional package
is reached.</p>
<p>Note that it is possible to run out of space while installing. If you selected too
many packages for the amount of free space on the target device, you will have problems.
The safest thing to do is to select some software and add more later, if you need it.
This can easily be done using Slackware's package management tools. For this information,
see <a href="package-management.html">Chapter 18</a>.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1100" name="AEN1100">3.4.8 CONFIGURE</a></h2>
<p>The configure section allows you to do some basic system configuration, now that the
packages have been installed. What you see here depends in large part upon which software
you have installed. You will, however, always see the following:</p>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1103" name="AEN1103">3.4.8.1 Kernel selection</a></h3>
<p>Here you will be asked to select a kernel to install. You can install the kernel from
the boot disk you used to install, the Slackware CD-ROM, or from another floppy which you
(always thinking ahead) have prepared. Or you can elect to skip, in which case the
default kernel will be installed and play will continue to the dealer's left.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1106" name="AEN1106"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-kernel-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1110" name="AEN1110">3.4.8.2 Make a boot disk</a></h3>
<p>Making a boot disk for future use is probably a good idea. You will have the option of
formatting a floppy and then creating one of two types of boot disk. The first type, <var
class="OPTION">simple</var>, simply (go figure) writes a kernel to the floppy. A more
flexible (and highly recommended) option is <var class="OPTION">lilo</var>, which will of
course create a lilo boot disk. See LILO in <a href="booting.html#BOOTING-LILO">Section
7.1</a> for more information. Of course, you may also choose to simply <var
class="LITERAL">continue</var>, in which case no boot disk will be made.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1119" name="AEN1119"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-bootdisk-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1123" name="AEN1123">3.4.8.3 Modem</a></h3>
<p>You will be prompted for modem information. More specifically, you will be asked
whether you have a modem, and if so, what serial port it is on.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1128" name="AEN1128"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-modem-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>These next configuration subsections may or may not appear, depending on whether or
not you installed their corresponding packages.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1133" name="AEN1133">3.4.8.4 Timezone</a></h3>
<p>This one's pretty straightforward: you will be asked what time zone you are in. If you
operate on Zulu time, we are very sorry; the (extremely long) list is alphabetically
ordered, and you're at the bottom.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1138" name="AEN1138"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-timezone-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1142" name="AEN1142">3.4.8.5 Mouse</a></h3>
<p>This subsection simply asks what kind of mouse you have, and whether you want <tt
class="COMMAND">gpm</tt>(8) console mouse support enabled on bootup.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1148" name="AEN1148"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-mouse-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1152" name="AEN1152">3.4.8.6 Hardware clock</a></h3>
<p>This subsection asks if your computer's hardware clock is set to Coordinated Universal
Time (UTC or GMT). Most PCs are not, so you should probably say no.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1155" name="AEN1155"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-hardware-clock-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1159" name="AEN1159">3.4.8.7 Font</a></h3>
<p>The font subsection allows you to choose from a list of custom console fonts.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1164" name="AEN1164"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-font-w.png" /></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1168" name="AEN1168">3.4.8.8 LILO</a></h3>
<p>Here you are prompted for installation of LILO (the LInux LOader; see <a
href="booting.html#BOOTING-LILO">Section 7.1</a> for more information).</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1174" name="AEN1174"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-lilo-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>If Slackware is to be the only operating system on your computer, <var
class="OPTION">simple</var> should work just fine for you. If you are dual-booting, the
<var class="OPTION">expert</var> option is a better choice. See <a
href="booting-dual.html">Section 7.3</a> for more information on dual-booting. The third
option, <var class="OPTION">do not install</var>, is not recommended unless you know what
you're doing and have a very good reason for not installing LILO. If you are performing
an expert install, you will be given a choice as to where LILO will be put. You may place
LILO in the MBR (Master Boot Record) of your hard drive, in the superblock of your root
Linux partition, or on a floppy disk.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1183" name="AEN1183">3.4.8.9 Network</a></h3>
<p>The network configuration subsection is actually <tt class="COMMAND">netconfig</tt>.
See <a href="network-configuration.html#NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NETCONFIG">Section 5.1</a>
for more information.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT3">
<h3 class="SECT3"><a id="AEN1190" name="AEN1190">3.4.8.10 X Window Manager</a></h3>
<p>This subsection will allow you to choose a default window manager for X. See <a
href="x-window-system.html">Chapter 6</a> for more details on X and window managers.</p>
<div class="INFORMALFIGURE"><a id="AEN1198" name="AEN1198"></a>
<p><img src="installation/setup-xwmconfig-w.png" /></p>
</div>
<p>No matter which packages you installed, the last thing configure will do is ask you
whether you want to go ahead and set a <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt> password. For
security reasons, this is probably a good idea; however, like almost everything else in
Slackware, this is your call.</p>
</div>
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<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="INSTALLATION" name="INSTALLATION"></a>Chapter 3 Installation</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>3.1 <a href="installation.html#INSTALLATION-GETTING">Getting Slackware</a></dt>
<dt>3.2 <a href="installation-requirements.html">System Requirements</a></dt>
<dt>3.3 <a href="installation-partitioning.html">Partitioning</a></dt>
<dt>3.4 <a href="installation-setup.html">The <tt class="COMMAND">setup</tt>
Program</a></dt>
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<p>Before you can use Slackware Linux, you'll have to obtain and install it. Getting
Slackware is as easy as purchasing it or downloading it for free over the Internet.
Installing it is also easy as long as you have some basic knowledge about your computer
and are willing to learn a few other things. The installation program itself is very much
a step-by-step process. Because of this, you can be up and running very quickly. In fact,
Slackware boasts one of the lowest installation times of any full-featured Linux
distribution.</p>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="INSTALLATION-GETTING" name="INSTALLATION-GETTING">3.1 Getting
Slackware</a></h1>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN641" name="AEN641">3.1.1 The Official Disc and Box
Sets</a></h2>
<p>The official Slackware Linux CD set is available from Slackware Linux, Inc. The CD set
consists of 4 discs. The first disk contains all the software needed for a basic server
install, and the X window system. The second cd is a &#8220;live&#8221; cd; that is, a
bootable cd that installs into RAM and gives you a temporary installation to play around
with or do a data or machine rescue. This cd also contains a few packages such as the KDE
and GNOME desktop environments. A few other goodies are included on the second cd
including many non-vital packages in the &#8220;extra&#8221; folder. The third and fourth
CDs contain the source code to all of Slackware, along with the original edition of this
book.</p>
<p>One may also purchase a boxed set that includes the 4 discs and a copy of this book,
as well as lots of neat Slackware gear to show off your geek pride. CD subscriptions are
available at a reduced rate also.</p>
<p>The preferred method for shopping for Slackware merchandise is online at the Slackware
store.</p>
<p><a href="http://store.slackware.com" target="_top">http://store.slackware.com</a></p>
<p>You can also call or e-mail your order in.</p>
<div class="TABLE"><a id="AEN661" name="AEN661"></a>
<p><b>Table 3-1. Slackware Linux, Inc. Contact Information</b></p>
<table border="0" frame="void" class="CALSTABLE">
<col width="1*" />
<col width="2*" />
<thead>
<tr>
<th>Method</th>
<th>Contact Details</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>Telephone</td>
<td>1-(925) 674-0783</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Website</td>
<td>http://store.slackware.com</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Email</td>
<td>orders@slackware.com</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Postal</td>
<td>1164 Claremont Drive, Brentwood, CA 94513</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN683" name="AEN683">3.1.2 Via the Internet</a></h2>
<p>Slackware Linux is also freely available over the Internet. You may email in your
support questions, but higher priority will be given to those who have purchased the
official CD set. With that said, we get a lot of e-mails and our time is rather limited.
Before e-mailing for support consider reading <a href="help.html">Chapter 2</a>
first.</p>
<p>The official Slackware Linux Project website is located at:</p>
<p><a href="http://www.slackware.com/" target="_top">http://www.slackware.com/</a></p>
<p>The primary FTP location for Slackware Linux is:</p>
<p><a href="ftp://ftp.slackware.com/pub/slackware/"
target="_top">ftp://ftp.slackware.com/pub/slackware/</a></p>
<p>Bear in mind that our ftp site, while open for general use, does not have unlimited
bandwidth. Please consider using a mirror near you to download Slackware. An incomplete
list of mirrors can be found on our site at <a href="http://www.slackware.com/getslack"
target="_top">http://www.slackware.com/getslack</a>.</p>
</div>
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<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="INTRODUCTION-OPENSOURCE" name="INTRODUCTION-OPENSOURCE">1.3 Open
Source and Free Software</a></h1>
<p>Within the Linux community, there are two major ideological movements at work. The
Free Software movement (which we'll get into in a moment) is working toward the goal of
making all software free of intellectual property restrictions. Followers of this
movement believe these restrictions hamper technical improvement and work against the
good of the community. The Open Source movement is working toward most of the same goals,
but takes a more pragmatic approach to them. Followers of this movement prefer to base
their arguments on the economic and technical merits of making source code freely
available, rather than the moral and ethical principles that drive the Free Software
Movement.</p>
<p>At the other end of the spectrum are groups that wish to maintain tighter controls
over their software.</p>
<p>The Free Software movement is headed by the Free Software Foundation, a fund-raising
organization for the GNU project. Free software is more of an ideology. The oft-used
expression is &#8220;free as in speech, not free as in beer&#8221;. In essence, free
software is an attempt to guarantee certain rights for both users and developers. These
freedoms include the freedom to run the program for any reason, to study and modify the
source code, to redistribute the source, and to share any modifications you make. In
order to guarantee these freedoms, the GNU General Public License (GPL) was created. The
GPL, in brief, provides that anyone distributing a compiled program which is licensed
under the GPL must also provide source code, and is free to make modifications to the
program as long as those modifications are also made available in source code form. This
guarantees that once a program is &#8220;opened&#8221; to the community, it cannot be
&#8220;closed&#8221; except by consent of every author of every piece of code (even the
modifications) within it. Most Linux programs are licensed under the GPL.</p>
<p>It is important to note that the GPL does not say anything about price. As odd as it
may sound, you can charge for free software. The &#8220;free&#8221; part is in the
liberties you have with the source code, not in the price you pay for the software.
(However, once someone has sold you, or even given you, a compiled program licensed under
the GPL they are obligated to provide its source code as well.)</p>
<p>Another popular license is the BSD license. In contrast to the GPL, the BSD license
gives no requirement for the release of a program's source code. Software released under
the BSD license allows redistribution in source or binary form provided only a few
conditions are met. The author's credentials cannot be used as a sort of advertisement
for the program. It also indemnifies the author from liability for damages that may arise
from the use of the software. Much of the software included in Slackware Linux is BSD
licensed.</p>
<p>At the forefront of the younger Open Source movement, the Open Source Initiative is an
organization that solely exists to gain support for open source software, that is,
software that has the source code available as well as the ready-to-run program. They do
not offer a specific license, but instead they support the various types of open source
licenses available.</p>
<p>The idea behind the OSI is to get more companies behind open source by allowing them
to write their own open source licenses and have those licenses certified by the Open
Source Initiative. Many companies want to release source code, but do not want to use the
GPL. Since they cannot radically change the GPL, they are offered the opportunity to
provide their own license and have it certified by this organization.</p>
<p>While the Free Software Foundation and the Open Source Initiative work to help each
other, they are not the same thing. The Free Software Foundation uses a specific license
and provides software under that license. The Open Source Initiative seeks support for
all open source licenses, including the one from the Free Software Foundation. The
grounds on which each argues for making source code freely available sometimes divides
the two movements, but the fact that two ideologically diverse groups are working toward
the same goal lends credence to the efforts of each.</p>
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<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="INTRODUCTION-SLACKWARE" name="INTRODUCTION-SLACKWARE">1.2 What
is Slackware?</a></h1>
<p>Slackware, started by Patrick Volkerding in late 1992, and initially released to the
world on July 17, 1993, was the first Linux distribution to achieve widespread use.
Volkerding first learned of Linux when he needed an inexpensive LISP interpreter for a
project. One of the few distributions available at the time was SLS Linux from Soft
Landing Systems. Volkerding used SLS Linux, fixing bugs as he found them. Eventually, he
decided to merge all of these bugfixes into his own private distribution that he and his
friends could use. This private distribution quickly gained popularity, so Volkerding
decided to name it Slackware and make it publicly available. Along the way, Patrick added
new things to Slackware; a user friendly installation program based on a menuing system,
as well as the concept of package management, which allows users to easily add, remove,
or upgrade software packages on their systems.</p>
<p>There are many reasons why Slackware is Linux's oldest living distribution. It does
not try to emulate Windows, it tries to be as Unix-like as possible. It does not try to
cover up processes with fancy, point-and-click GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces). Instead,
it puts users in control by letting them see exactly what's going on. Its development is
not rushed to meet deadlines-each version comes out when it is ready.</p>
<p>Slackware is for people who enjoy learning and tweaking their system to do exactly
what they want. Slackware's stability and simplicity are why people will continue to use
it for years to come. Slackware currently enjoys a reputation as a solid server and a
no-nonsense workstation. You can find Slackware desktops running nearly any window
manager or desktop environment, or none at all. Slackware servers power businesses,
acting in every capacity that a server can be used in. Slackware users are among the most
satisfied Linux users. Of course, we'd say that. :^)</p>
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<h1><a id="INTRODUCTION" name="INTRODUCTION"></a>Chapter 1 An Introduction to Slackware
Linux</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>1.1 <a href="introduction.html#INTRODUCTION-LINUX">What is Linux?</a></dt>
<dt>1.2 <a href="introduction-slackware.html">What is Slackware?</a></dt>
<dt>1.3 <a href="introduction-opensource.html">Open Source and Free Software</a></dt>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="INTRODUCTION-LINUX" name="INTRODUCTION-LINUX">1.1 What is
Linux?</a></h1>
<p>Linus Torvalds started Linux, an operating system kernel, as a personal project in
1991. He started the project because he wanted to run a Unix-based operating system
without spending a lot of money. In addition, he wanted to learn the ins and outs of the
386 processor. Linux was released free of charge to the public so that anyone could study
it and make improvements under the General Public License. (See <a
href="introduction-opensource.html">Section 1.3</a> and <a href="gpl.html">Appendix A</a>
for an explanation of the license.) Today, Linux has grown into a major player in the
operating system market. It has been ported to run on a variety of system architectures,
including HP/Compaq's Alpha, Sun's SPARC and UltraSPARC, and Motorola's PowerPC chips
(through Apple Macintosh and IBM RS/6000 computers.) Hundreds, if not thousands, of
programmers all over the world now develop Linux. It runs programs like Sendmail, Apache,
and BIND, which are very popular software used to run Internet servers. It's important to
remember that the term &#8220;Linux&#8221; really refers to the kernel - the core of the
operating system. This core is responsible for controlling your computer's processor,
memory, hard drives, and peripherals. That's all Linux really does: It controls the
operations of your computer and makes sure that all of its programs behave. Various
companies and individuals bundle the kernel and various programs together to make an
operating system. We call each bundle a Linux distribution.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="INTRODUCTION-LINUX-GNU" name="INTRODUCTION-LINUX-GNU">1.1.1 A
Word on GNU</a></h2>
<p>The Linux kernel project began as a solo endeavor by Linus Torvalds in 1991, but as
Isaac Newton once said, &#8220;If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders
of giants.&#8221; When Linus Torvalds began the kernel the Free Software Foundation had
already established the idea of collaborative software. They entitled their effort GNU, a
recursive acronym that means simply &#8220;GNU's Not Unix&#8221;. GNU software ran atop
the Linux kernel from day 1. Their compiler <tt class="COMMAND">gcc</tt> was used to
compile the kernel. Today many GNU tools from <tt class="COMMAND">gcc</tt> to <tt
class="COMMAND">gnutar</tt> are still at the basis of every major Linux distribution. For
this reason many of the Free Software Foundation's proponents fervently state that their
work should be given the same credit as the Linux kernel. They strongly suggest that all
Linux distributions should refer to themselves as GNU/Linux distributions.</p>
<p>This is the topic of many flamewars, surpassed only by the ancient vi versus emacs
holy war. The purpose of this book is not to fan the fires of this heated discussion, but
rather to clarify the terminology for neophytes. When one sees GNU/Linux it means a Linux
distribution. When one sees Linux they can either be referring to the kernel, or to a
distribution. It can be rather confusing. Typically the term GNU/Linux isn't used because
it's a mouth full.</p>
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<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE">5.2 Network Hardware Configuration</a></h1>
<p>Having decided that you wish to bring your Slackware machine on to some form of
network, the first thing you'll need is a Linux-compatible network card. You will need to
take a little care to ensure that the card is truly Linux-compatible (please refer to the
Linux Documentation Project and/or the kernel documentation for information on the
current status of your proposed network card). As a general rule, you will most likely be
pleasantly surprised by the number of networking cards that are supported under the more
modern kernels. Having said that, I'd still suggest referring to any of the various Linux
hardware compatibility lists (such as <a
href="http://www.eskimo.com/%7Elo/linux/hardwarelinks.html" target="_top">The GNU/Linux
Beginners Group Hardware Compatibility Links</a> and <a
href="http://www.linux.org/docs/ldp/howto/Hardware-HOWTO/" target="_top">The Linux
Documentation Project Hardware HOWTO</a>) that are available on the Internet before
purchasing your card. A little extra time spent in research can save days or even weeks
trying to troubleshoot a card that isn't compatible with Linux at all.</p>
<p>When you visit the Linux Hardware Compatibility lists available on the Internet, or
when you refer to the kernel documentation installed on your machine, it would be wise to
note which kernel module you'll need to use to support your network card.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE-MODULES"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE-MODULES">5.2.1 Loading Network Modules</a></h2>
<p>Kernel modules that are to be loaded on boot-up are loaded from the <tt
class="FILENAME">rc.modules</tt> file in <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d</tt> or by the
kernel's auto module loading started by <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.hotplug</tt>.
The default <tt class="FILENAME">rc.modules</tt> file includes a Network device support
section. If you open <tt class="FILENAME">rc.modules</tt> and look for that section,
you'll notice that it first checks for an executable <tt
class="FILENAME">rc.netdevice</tt> file in <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/</tt>. This
script is created if <tt class="COMMAND">setup</tt> successfully autoprobes your network
device during installation.</p>
<p>Below that &#8220;if&#8221; block is a list of network devices and modprobe lines,
each commented out. Find your device and uncomment the corresponding modprobe line, then
save the file. Running <tt class="FILENAME">rc.modules</tt> as <tt
class="USERNAME">root</tt> should now load your network device driver (as well as any
other modules that are listed and uncommented). Note that some modules (such as the
ne2000 driver) require parameters; make sure you select the correct line.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE-LAN"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE-LAN">5.2.2 LAN (10/100/1000Base-T and Base-2)
cards</a></h2>
<p>This heading encompasses all of the internal PCI and ISA networking cards. Drivers for
these cards are provided via loadable kernel modules as covered in the previous
paragraph. <tt class="FILENAME">/sbin/netconfig</tt> should have probed for your card and
successfully set up your <tt class="FILENAME">rc.netdevice</tt> file. If this did not
occur, the most likely problem would be that the module that you're attempting to load
for a given card is incorrect (it is not unheard of for different generations of the same
brand of card from the same manufacturer to require different modules). If you are
certain that the module that you're attempting to load is the correct one, your next best
bet would be to refer to the documentation for the module in an attempt to discover
whether or not specific parameters are required during when the module is
initialized.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE-MODEMS"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE-MODEMS">5.2.3 Modems</a></h2>
<p>Like LAN cards, modems can come with various bus support options. Until recently, most
modems were 8 or 16 bit ISA cards. With the efforts of Intel and motherboard
manufacturers everywhere to finally kill off the ISA bus completely, it is common now to
find that most modems are either external modems that connect to a serial or USB port or
are internal PCI modems. If you wish for your modem to work with Linux, it is <span
class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">VITALLY</i></span> important to research your
prospective modem purchase, particularly if you are considering purchasing a PCI modem.
Many, if not most, PCI modems available on store shelves these days are WinModems.
WinModems lack some basic hardware on the modem card itself: the functions performed by
this hardware are typically offloaded onto the CPU by the modem driver and the Windows
operating system. This means that they do not have the standard serial interface that
PPPD will be expecting to see when you try to dial out to your Internet Service
Provider.</p>
<p>If you want to be absolutely sure that the modem you're purchasing will work with
Linux, purchase an external hardware modem that connects to the serial port on your PC.
These are guaranteed to work better and be less trouble to install and maintain, though
they require external power and tend to cost more.</p>
<p>There are several web sites that provide drivers and assistance for configuring
WinModem based devices. Some users have reported success configuring and installing
drivers for the various winmodems, including Lucent, Conexant, and Rockwell chipsets. As
the required software for these devices is not an included part of Slackware, and varies
from driver to driver, we will not go into detail on them.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE-PCMCIA"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-HARDWARE-PCMCIA">5.2.4 PCMCIA</a></h2>
<p>As part of your Slackware install, you are given the opportunity to install the pcmcia
package (in the &#8220;A&#8221; series of packages). This package contains the
applications and setup files required to work with PCMCIA cards under Slackware. It is
important to note that the pcmcia package only installs the generic software required to
work with PCMCIA cards under Slackware. It does NOT install any drivers or modules. The
available modules and drivers will be in the <tt class="FILENAME">/lib/modules/`uname
-r`/pcmcia</tt> directory. You may need to do some experimentation to find a module that
will work with your network card.</p>
<p>You will need to edit <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/pcmcia/network.opts</tt> (for an
Ethernet card) or <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/pcmcia/wireless.opts</tt> (if you have a
wireless networking card). Like most Slackware configuration files, these two files are
very well commented and it should be easy to determine which modifications need to be
made.</p>
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<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NFS" name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NFS">5.6
Network File Systems</a></h1>
<p>At this point, you should have a working TCP/IP connection to your network. You should
be able to ping other computers on your internal network and, if you have configured an
appropriate gateway, you should also be able to ping computers on the Internet itself. As
we know, the whole point in bringing a computer onto a network is to access information.
While some people might bring a computer up on a network just for the fun of it, most
people wish to be able to share files and printers. They wish to be able to access
documents on the Internet or play an online game. Having TCP/IP installed and functional
on your new Slackware system is a means to that end, but with just TCP/IP installed,
functionality will be very rudimentary. To share files, we will have to transfer them
back and forth using either FTP or SCP. We cannot browse files on our new Slackware
computer from the Network Neighborhood or My Network Places icons on Windows computers.
We'd like to be able to access files on other Unix machines seamlessly.</p>
<p>Ideally, we'd like to be able to use a <span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">network file system</i></span> to allow us transparent access to our
files on other computers. The programs that we use to interact with information stored on
our computers really do not need to know on what computer a given file is stored; they
just need to know that it exists and how to get to it. It is then the responsibility of
the operating system to manage access to that file through the available file systems and
network file systems. The two most commonly used network file systems are SMB (as
implemented by Samba) and NFS.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NSF-SMB"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NSF-SMB">5.6.1 SMB/Samba/CIFS</a></h2>
<p>SMB (for Server Message Block) is a descendant of the older NetBIOS protocol that was
initially used by IBM in their LAN Manager product. Microsoft has always been fairly
interested in NetBIOS and it's successors (NetBEUI, SMB and CIFS). The Samba project has
existed since 1991, when it was originally written to link an IBM PC running NetBIOS with
a Unix server. These days, SMB is the preferred method for sharing file and print
services over a network for virtually the entire civilized world because Windows supports
it.</p>
<p>Samba's configuration file is <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/samba/smb.conf</tt>; one of
the most well commented and documented configuration files you will find anywhere. Sample
shares have been setup for you to view and modify for your needs. If you need even
tighter control the man page for smb.conf is indispensable. Since Samba is documented so
well in the places I've mentioned above, we will not rewrite the documentation here. We
will, however, quickly cover the basics.</p>
<p><tt class="FILENAME">smb.conf</tt> is broken down into multiple sections: one section
per share, and a global section for setting options that are to be used everywhere. Some
options are only valid in the global section; some are only valid outside the global
section. Remember that the global section can be over-ridden by any other section. Refer
to the man pages for more information.</p>
<p>You will most likely wish to edit your <tt class="FILENAME">smb.conf</tt> file to
reflect the network settings in your LAN. I would suggest modifying the items listed
below:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
[global]
# workgroup = NT-Domain-Name or Workgroup-Name, eg: LINUX2
workgroup = MYGROUP
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Change the workgroup name to reflect the workgroup or domain name that you are using
locally.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
# server string is the equivalent of the NT Description field
server string = Samba Server
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This will be the name of your Slackware computer displayed in the Network Neighborhood
(or My Network Places) folder.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
# Security mode. Most people will want user level security. See
# security_level.txt for details. NOTE: To get the behaviour of
# Samba-1.9.18, you'll need to use "security = share".
security = user
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>You'll almost certainly wish to implement user level security on your Slackware
system.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
# You may wish to use password encryption. Please read
# ENCRYPTION.txt, Win95.txt and WinNT.txt in the Samba
# documentation.
# Do not enable this option unless you have read those documents
encrypt passwords = yes
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If encrypt passwords is not enabled, you will not be able to use Samba with NT4.0,
Win2k, WinXP, and Win2003. Earlier Windows operating systems did not require encryption
to share files.</p>
<p>SMB is an authenticated protocol, meaning you must supply a correct username and
password in order to use this service. We tell the samba server what usernames and
passwords are valid with the <tt class="COMMAND">smbpasswd</tt> command. <tt
class="COMMAND">smbpasswd</tt> takes a couple of common switches to tell it to either add
traditional users, or add machine users (SMB requires that you add the computers' NETBIOS
names as machine users, restricting what computers one can authenticate from).</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
Adding a user to the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/samba/private/smbpasswd</tt> file.
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">smbpasswd -a user</kbd>
Adding a machine name to the /etc/samba/private/smbpasswd file.
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">smbpasswd -a -m machine</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>It's important to note that a given username or machine name must already exist in the
<tt class="FILENAME">/etc/passwd</tt> file. You can accomplish this simply with the <tt
class="COMMAND">adduser</tt> command. Note that when using the <tt
class="COMMAND">adduser</tt> command to add a machine name one must append a dollar sign
(&#8220;<var class="LITERAL">$</var>&#8221;) to the machine name. This should <span
class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">not</i></span> however, be done with <tt
class="COMMAND">smbpasswd</tt>. <tt class="COMMAND">smbpasswd</tt> appends the dollar
sign on its own. Failing to mangle the machine name this way with <tt
class="COMMAND">adduser</tt> will result in an error when adding the machine name to
samba.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">adduser machine$</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NFS-NFS"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NFS-NFS">5.6.2 Network File System (NFS)</a></h2>
<p>NFS (or Network File System) was originally written by Sun for their Solaris
implementation of Unix. While it is significantly easier to get up and running when
compared to SMB, it is also significantly less secure. The primary insecurity in NFS is
that it is easy to spoof user and group id's from one machine to another. NFS is an
unauthenticated protocol. Future versions of the NFS protocol are being devised that
enhance security, but these are not common at the time of this writing.</p>
<p>NFS configuration is governed by the <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/exports</tt> file. When
you load the default <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/exports</tt> file into an editor, you'll
see a blank file with a two line comment on top. We'll need to add a line to the exports
file for each directory that we wish to export, with a listing of client workstations
that will be allowed to access that file. For instance, if we wished to export directory
<tt class="FILENAME">/home/foo</tt> to workstation Bar, we would simply add the line:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
/home/foo Bar(rw)
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>to our <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/exports</tt>. Below, you'll find the example from the
man page for the <tt class="FILENAME">exports</tt> file:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
# sample /etc/exports file
/ master(rw) trusty(rw,no_root_squash)
/projects proj*.local.domain(rw)
/usr *.local.domain(ro) @trusted(rw)
/home/joe pc001(rw,all_squash,anonuid=150,anongid=100)
/pub (ro,insecure,all_squash)
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>As you can see, there are various options available, but most should be fairly clear
from this example.</p>
<p>NFS works under the assumption that a given user on one machine in a network has the
same user ID on all machines across the network. When an attempt is made to read or write
from a NFS client to an NFS server, a UID is passed as part of the read/write request.
This UID is treated the same as if the read/write request originated on the local
machine. As you can see, if one could arbitrarily specify a given UID when accessing
resources on a remote system, Bad Things (tm) could and would happen. As a partial hedge
against this, each directory is mounted with the <var class="OPTION">root_squash</var>
option. This maps the UID for any user claiming to be root to a different UID, thus
preventing root access to the files or folders in the exported directory. <var
class="OPTION">root_squash</var> seems to be enabled by default as a security measure,
but the authors recommend specifying it anyway in your <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/exports</tt> file.</p>
<p>You can also export a directory directly from the command line on the server by using
the <tt class="COMMAND">exportfs</tt> command as follows:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd
class="USERINPUT">exportfs -o rw,no_root_squash Bar:/home/foo</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>This line exports the <tt class="FILENAME">/home/foo</tt> directory to the computer
&#8220;<tt class="HOSTID">Bar</tt>&#8221; and grants <tt class="HOSTID">Bar</tt>
read/write access. Additionally, the NFS server will not invoke <var
class="OPTION">root_squash</var>, which means any user on Bar with a UID of
&#8220;0&#8221; (root's UID) will have the same privileges as root on the server. The
syntax does look strange (usually when a directory is specified in <var
class="LITERAL">computer:/directory/file</var> syntax, you are referring to a file in a
directory on a given computer).</p>
<p>You'll find more information on the man page for the exports file.</p>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-PPP" name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-PPP">5.4
PPP</a></h1>
<p>Many people still connect to the Internet through some kind of dialup connection. The
most common method is PPP, though SLIP is still occasionally used. Setting up your system
to speak PPP to a remote server is pretty easy. We've included a few tools to help you in
setting it up.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1954" name="AEN1954">5.4.1 <tt
class="COMMAND">pppsetup</tt></a></h2>
<p>Slackware includes a program called <tt class="COMMAND">pppsetup</tt> to configure
your system to use your dialup account. It shares a look and feel similar to our <tt
class="COMMAND">netconfig</tt> program. To run the program, make sure you are logged in
as root. Then type <tt class="COMMAND">pppsetup</tt> to run it. You should see a screen
like this:</p>
<p>The program will present a series of questions, to which you will feed it appropriate
answers. Things like your modem device, the modem initialization string, and the ISP
phone number. Some items will have a default, which you can accept in most cases.</p>
<p>After the program runs, it will create a <tt class="COMMAND">ppp-go</tt> program and a
<tt class="COMMAND">ppp-off</tt> program. These are used to start and stop, respectively,
the PPP connection. The two programs are located in <tt class="FILENAME">/usr/sbin</tt>
and need root privileges to run.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN1969" name="AEN1969">5.4.2 <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/ppp</tt></a></h2>
<p>For most users, running <tt class="COMMAND">pppsetup</tt> will be sufficient. However,
there may be an instance where you want to tweak some of the values used by the PPP
daemon. All of the configuration information is kept in <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/ppp</tt>. Here is a list of what the different files are for:</p>
<div class="INFORMALTABLE"><a id="AEN1975" name="AEN1975"></a>
<table border="0" frame="void" class="CALSTABLE">
<col width="1*" />
<col width="3*" />
<tbody>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">ip-down</tt></td>
<td>
<p>This script is run by <tt class="COMMAND">pppd</tt> after the PPP connection is
ended.</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">ip-up</tt></td>
<td>
<p>This script is run by <tt class="COMMAND">pppd</tt> when there's a successful ppp
connection. Put any commands you want run after a successful connection in this file.</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="FILENAME">options</tt></td>
<td>
<p>General configuration options for <tt class="COMMAND">pppd</tt>.</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="FILENAME">options.demand</tt></td>
<td>
<p>General configuration options for <tt class="COMMAND">pppd</tt> when run in demand
dialing mode.</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="COMMAND">pppscript</tt></td>
<td>
<p>The commands sent to the modem.</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><tt class="FILENAME">pppsetup.txt</tt></td>
<td>
<p>A log of what you entered when you ran <tt class="COMMAND">pppsetup</tt>.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div class="NOTE">
<table class="NOTE" width="100%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="25" align="CENTER" valign="TOP"><img src="./imagelib/admon/note.png"
hspace="5" alt="Note" /></td>
<td align="LEFT" valign="TOP">
<p>Most of these files won't be there until after you run <tt
class="COMMAND">pppsetup</tt>.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
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</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP">5.3 TCP/IP Configuration</a></h1>
<p>At this point, your network card should be physically installed in your computer, and
the relevant kernel modules should be loaded. You will not yet be able to communicate
over your network card, but information about the network device can be obtained with <tt
class="COMMAND">ifconfig -a</tt>.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ifconfig -a</kbd>
eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:A0:CC:3C:60:A4
UP BROADCAST NOTRAILERS RUNNING MULTICAST MTU:1500 Metric:1
RX packets:110081 errors:1 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:84931 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:100
RX bytes:114824506 (109.5 Mb) TX bytes:9337924 (8.9 Mb)
Interrupt:5 Base address:0x8400
lo Link encap:Local Loopback
inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0
UP LOOPBACK RUNNING MTU:16436 Metric:1
RX packets:2234 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 frame:0
TX packets:2234 errors:0 dropped:0 overruns:0 carrier:0
collisions:0 txqueuelen:0
RX bytes:168758 (164.8 Kb) TX bytes:168758 (164.8 Kb)
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>If you just typed <tt class="COMMAND">/sbin/ifconfig</tt> without the <var
class="OPTION">-a</var> suffix, you would not see the <tt class="FILENAME">eth0</tt>
interface, as your network card does not yet have a valid IP address or route.</p>
<p>While there are many different ways to setup and subnet a network, all of them can be
broken down into two types: Static and Dynamic. Static networks are setup such that each
node (geek lingo for thing with an IP address) always has the same IP address. Dynamic
networks are setup in such a way that the IP addresses for the nodes are controlled by a
single server called the DHCP server.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-DHCP"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-DHCP">5.3.1 DHCP</a></h2>
<p>DHCP (or Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), is a means by which an IP address may
be assigned to a computer on boot. When the DHCP <span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">client</i></span> boots, it puts out a request on the Local Area Network
for a DHCP <span class="emphasis"><i class="EMPHASIS">server</i></span> to assign it an
IP address. The DHCP server has a pool (or <span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">scope</i></span>) of IP addresses available. The server will respond to
this request with an IP address from the pool, along with a <span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">lease time</i></span>. Once the lease time for a given IP address lease
has expired, the client must contact the server again and repeat the negotiation.</p>
<p>The client will then accept the IP address from the server and will configure the
requested interface with the IP address. There is one more handy trick that DHCP clients
use for negotiating the IP address that they will be assigned, however. The client will
remember it's last assigned IP address, and will request that the server re-assign that
IP address to the client again upon next negotiation. If possible, the server will do so,
but if not, a new address is assigned. So, the negotiation resembles the following:</p>
<p class="LITERALLAYOUT">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Client</i></span>:&nbsp;Is&nbsp;there&nbsp;a&nbsp;DHCP&nbsp;server&nbsp;available&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;LAN?<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Server</i></span>:&nbsp;Yes,&nbsp;there&nbsp;is.&nbsp;Here&nbsp;I&nbsp;am.<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Client</i></span>:&nbsp;I&nbsp;need&nbsp;an&nbsp;IP&nbsp;address.<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Server</i></span>:&nbsp;You&nbsp;may&nbsp;take&nbsp;192.168.10.10&nbsp;for&nbsp;19200&nbsp;seconds.<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Client</i></span>:&nbsp;Thank&nbsp;you.</p>
<p class="LITERALLAYOUT">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Client</i></span>:&nbsp;Is&nbsp;there&nbsp;a&nbsp;DHCP&nbsp;server&nbsp;available&nbsp;on&nbsp;the&nbsp;LAN?<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Server</i></span>:Yes,&nbsp;there&nbsp;is.&nbsp;Here&nbsp;I&nbsp;am.<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Client</i></span>:I&nbsp;need&nbsp;an&nbsp;IP&nbsp;address.&nbsp;The&nbsp;last&nbsp;time&nbsp;we<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;talked,&nbsp;I&nbsp;had&nbsp;192.168.10.10;<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;May&nbsp;I&nbsp;have&nbsp;it&nbsp;again?<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Server</i></span>:Yes,&nbsp;you&nbsp;may&nbsp;(or&nbsp;No,&nbsp;you&nbsp;may&nbsp;not:&nbsp;take&nbsp;192.168.10.12&nbsp;instead).<br />
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="emphasis"><i
class="EMPHASIS">Client</i></span>:&nbsp;Thank&nbsp;you.</p>
<p>The DHCP client in Linux is <tt class="COMMAND">/sbin/dhcpcd</tt>. If you load <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.inet1</tt> in your favorite text editor, you will notice
that <tt class="COMMAND">/sbin/dhcpcd</tt> is called about midway through the script.
This will force the conversation shown above. <tt class="COMMAND">dhcpcd</tt> will also
track the amount of time left on the lease for the current IP address, and will
automatically contact the DHCP server with a request to renew the lease when necessary.
DHCP can also control related information, such as what ntp server to use, what route to
take, etc.</p>
<p>Setting up DHCP on Slackware is simple. Just run <tt class="COMMAND">netconfig</tt>
and select DHCP when offered. If you have more than one NIC and do not wish <tt
class="FILENAME">eth0</tt> to be configured by DHCP, just edit the <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf</tt> file and change the related variable for
your NIC to &#8220;<var class="LITERAL">YES</var>&#8221;.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-STATIC"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-STATIC">5.3.2 Static IP</a></h2>
<p>Static IP addresses are fixed addresses that only change if manually told to. These
are used in any case where an administrator doesn't want the IP information to change,
such for internal servers on a LAN, any server connected to the Internet, and networked
routers. With static IP addressing, you assign an address and leave it at that. Other
machines know that you are always at that certain IP address and can contact you at that
address always.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-CONF"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-CONF">5.3.3 <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf</tt></a></h2>
<p>If you plan on assigning an IP address to your new Slackware box, you may do so either
through the <tt class="FILENAME">netconfig</tt> script, or you may edit <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf</tt>. In <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.inet1.conf</tt> , you will notice:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
# Primary network interface card (eth0)
IPADDR[0]=""
NETMASK[0]=""
USE_DHCP[0]=""
DHCP_HOSTNAME[0]=""
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Then further at the bottom:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="PROGRAMLISTING">
GATEWAY=""
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>In this case, our task is merely to place the correct information between the
double-quotes. These variables are called by <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.inet1</tt>
at boot time to setup the nics. For each NIC, just enter the correct IP information, or
put &#8220;<var class="LITERAL">YES</var>&#8221; for <var class="LITERAL">USE_DHCP</var>.
Slackware will startup the interfaces with the information placed here in the order they
are found.</p>
<p>The <var class="LITERAL">DEFAULT_GW</var> variable sets up the default route for
Slackware. All communications between your computer and other computers on the Internet
must pass through that gateway if no other route is specified for them. If you are using
DHCP, you will usually not need to enter anything here, as the DHCP server will specify
what gateway to use.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-RESOLVER"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-RESOLVER">5.3.4 <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/resolv.conf</tt></a></h2>
<p>Ok, so you've got an IP address, you've got a default gateway, you may even have ten
million dollars (give us some), but what good is that if you can't resolve names to IP
addresses? No one wants to type in <tt class="HOSTID">72.9.234.112</tt> into their web
browser to reach <tt class="HOSTID">www.slackbook.org</tt>. After all, who other than the
authors would memorize that IP address? We need to setup DNS, but how? That's where <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/resolv.conf</tt> comes into play.</p>
<p>Chances are you already have the proper options in <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/resolv.conf</tt>. If you setup your network connection using DHCP,
the DHCP server should handle updating this file for you. (Technically the DHCP server
just tells <tt class="COMMAND">dhcpcd</tt> what to put here, and it obeys.) If you need
to manually update your DNS server list though, you'll need to hand edit <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/resolv.conf</tt>. Below is an example:</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cat /etc/resolv.conf</kbd>
nameserver 192.168.1.254
search lizella.net
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>The first line is simple. The nameserver directive tells us what DNS servers to query.
By necessity these are always IP addresses. You may have as many listed there as you
like. Slackware will happily check one after the other until one returns a match.</p>
<p>The second line is a little more interesting. The search directive gives us a list of
domain names to assume whenever a DNS request is made. This allows you to contact a
machine by only the first part of its FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Name). For example, if
&#8220;slackware.com&#8221; were in your search path, you could reach <tt
class="HOSTID">http://store.slackware.com</tt> by just pointing your web browser at <tt
class="HOSTID">http://store</tt>.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">ping -c 1 store</kbd>
PING store.slackware.com (69.50.233.153): 56 data bytes
64 bytes from 69.50.233.153 : icmp_seq=0 ttl=64 time=0.251 ms
1 packets transmitted, 1 packets received, 0% packet loss
round-trip min/avg/max = 0.251/0.251/0.251 ms
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<br />
<br />
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-HOSTS"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-TCPIP-HOSTS">5.3.5 <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/hosts</tt></a></h2>
<p>Now that we've got DNS working fine, what if we want to bypass our DNS server, or add
a DNS entry for a machine that isn't in DNS? Slackware includes the oft-loved <tt
class="FILENAME">/etc/hosts</tt> file which contains a local list of DNS names and IP
addresses they should match to.</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">cat /etc/hosts</kbd>
127.0.0.1 localhost locahost.localdomain
192.168.1.101 redtail
172.14.66.32 foobar.slackware.com
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Here you can see that localhost has an IP address of <tt class="HOSTID">127.0.0.1</tt>
(always reserved for localhost), redtail can be reached at <tt
class="HOSTID">192.168.1.101</tt>, and <tt class="HOSTID">foobar.slackware.com</tt> is
<tt class="HOSTID">172.14.66.32</tt>.</p>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-WIRELESS"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-WIRELESS">5.5 Wireless</a></h1>
<p>Wireless networking is still a relatively new thing in the world of computers, yet is
quickly catching on as more people begin to purchase laptops and want networking on the
go, without having to fool with some old twisted pair cable. This trend doesn't appear to
be slowing down. Unfortunately, wireless networking isn't yet as strongly supported in
Linux as traditional wired networking.</p>
<p>There are three basic steps to configuring an 802.11 wireless Ethernet card:</p>
<ol type="1">
<li>
<p>Hardware support for the wireless card</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Configure the card to connect to a wireless access point</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Configure the network</p>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN2033" name="AEN2033">5.5.1 Hardware Support</a></h2>
<p>Hardware support for a wireless card is provided through the kernel, either with a
module or built in to the kernel. Generally, most newer Ethernet cards are provided
through kernel modules, so you'll want to determine the appropriate kernel module and
load it through <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.modules</tt>. <tt
class="COMMAND">netconfig</tt> may not detect your wireless card, so you'll probably need
to determine the card yourself. See <a
href="http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Jean_Tourrilhes/Linux/"
target="_top">http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Jean_Tourrilhes/Linux/</a> for more
information on kernel drivers for various wireless cards.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN2044" name="AEN2044">5.5.2 Configure the Wireless
Settings</a></h2>
<p>The vast majority of this work is done by <tt class="COMMAND">iwconfig</tt>, so as
always read the man page for <tt class="COMMAND">iwconfig</tt> if you need more
information.</p>
<p>First, you'll want to configure your wireless access point. Wireless access points
vary quite a bit in their terminology, and how to configure them, so you may need to
adjust a bit to accommodate your hardware. In general, you'll need at least the following
information:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>The domain ID, or name of the network (called the ESSID by <tt
class="COMMAND">iwconfig</tt>)</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The channel the WAP uses</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The encryption settings, including any keys used (preferably in hexadecimal)</p>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="WARNING">
<table class="WARNING" width="100%" border="0">
<tr>
<td width="25" align="CENTER" valign="TOP"><img src="./imagelib/admon/warning.png"
hspace="5" alt="Warning" /></td>
<td align="LEFT" valign="TOP">
<p>A NOTE ABOUT WEP. WEP is quit flawed, but it's much better than nothing. If you wish a
greater degree of security on your wireless network, you should investigate VPNs or
IPSec, both of which are beyond the scope of this document. You might also configure your
WAP not to advertise its domain ID/ ESSID. A thorough discussion of wireless policy is
beyond the scope of this section, but a quick Google search will turn up more than you
ever wanted to know.</p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
<p>Once you've gathered the above information, and assuming you've used <tt
class="COMMAND">modprobe</tt> to load the appropriate kernel driver, you can edit <tt
class="FILENAME">rc.wireless.conf</tt> and add your settings. The <tt
class="FILENAME">rc.wireless.conf</tt> file is a bit untidy. The least effort is to
modify the generic section with your ESSID and KEY, and CHANNEL if required by your card.
(Try not setting CHANNEL, and if it works, great; if not, set the CHANNEL as
appropriate.) If you're daring, you can modify the file so that only the necessary
variables are set. The variable names in <tt class="FILENAME">rc.wireless.conf</tt>
correspond to the <tt class="COMMAND">iwconfig</tt> parameters, and are read by <tt
class="FILENAME">rc.wireless</tt> and used in the appropriate <tt
class="COMMAND">iwconfig</tt> commands.</p>
<p>If you have your key in hexadecimal, that's ideal, since you can be fairly confident
that your WAP and <tt class="COMMAND">iwconfig</tt> will agree on the key. If you only
have a string, you can't be sure how your WAP will translate that into a hexadecimal key,
so some guesswork may be needed (or get your WAP's key in hex).</p>
<p>Once you've modified <tt class="FILENAME">rc.wireless.conf</tt>, run <tt
class="FILENAME">rc.wireless</tt> as <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt>, then run <tt
class="FILENAME">rc.inet1</tt>, again as <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt>. You can test
your wireless networking with standard testing tools such as <tt
class="COMMAND">ping</tt>, along with <tt class="COMMAND">iwconfig</tt>. If you have a
wired interface you may wish to use <tt class="COMMAND">ifconfig</tt> to turn those
interfaces off while you test your wireless networking to ensure there's no interference.
You may also want to test your changes through a reboot.</p>
<p>Now that you've seen how to edit <tt class="FILENAME">/etc/rc.d/rc.wireless</tt> for
you default network, let's take a closer look at iwconfig and see how it all works. This
will teach you the quick and dirty way of setting up wifi for those times when you find
yourself at an Internet cafe, coffee shop, or any other wifi hot spot and wish to get
online.</p>
<p>The first step is to tell your wireless NIC what network to join. Make sure you
replace &#8220;<tt class="FILENAME">eth0</tt>&#8221; with whatever network interface your
wireless card uses and change &#8220;<var class="REPLACEABLE">mynetwork</var>&#8221; to
the essid you wish to use. Yes, we know you're smarter than that. Next you'll have to
specify the encryption key (if any) used on your wireless network. Finally specify the
channel to use (if needed).</p>
<table border="0" bgcolor="#E0E0E0" width="100%">
<tr>
<td>
<pre class="SCREEN">
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">iwconfig eth0 essid "<var
class="REPLACEABLE">mynetwork</var>"</kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">iwconfig eth0 key <var
class="REPLACEABLE">XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX</var></kbd>
<samp class="PROMPT">#</samp> <kbd class="USERINPUT">iwconfig eth0 channel n</kbd>
</pre>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>That should be all on the wireless end of things.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="AEN2101" name="AEN2101">5.5.3 Configure the Network</a></h2>
<p>This is done in the exact same way as wired networks. Simply refer to earlier sections
of this chapter.</p>
</div>
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<div class="CHAPTER">
<h1><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION" name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION"></a>Chapter 5 Network
Configuration</h1>
<div class="TOC">
<dl>
<dt><b>Table of Contents</b></dt>
<dt>5.1 <a
href="network-configuration.html#NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NETCONFIG">Introduction: netconfig
is your friend.</a></dt>
<dt>5.2 <a href="network-configuration-hardware.html">Network Hardware
Configuration</a></dt>
<dt>5.3 <a href="network-configuration-tcpip.html">TCP/IP Configuration</a></dt>
<dt>5.4 <a href="network-configuration-ppp.html">PPP</a></dt>
<dt>5.5 <a href="network-configuration-wireless.html">Wireless</a></dt>
<dt>5.6 <a href="network-configuration-nfs.html">Network File Systems</a></dt>
</dl>
</div>
<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NETCONFIG"
name="NETWORK-CONFIGURATION-NETCONFIG">5.1 Introduction: netconfig is your
friend.</a></h1>
<p>When you initially installed Slackware, the setup program invoked the <tt
class="COMMAND">netconfig</tt> program. <tt class="COMMAND">netconfig</tt> attempted to
perform the following functions for you:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>It asked you for the name of your computer, and the domain name for your computer.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>It gave a brief explanation of the various types of addressing schemes, told when they
should be used, and asked you which IP addressing scheme you wished to use to configure
your network card:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p>Static-IP</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>DHCP</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Loopback</p>
</li>
</ul>
<br />
<br />
</li>
<li>
<p>It then offered to probe for a network card to configure.</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">netconfig</tt> will generally take care of about 80% of the work
of configuring your LAN network connection if you will let it. Note that I would strongly
suggest that you review your config file for a couple of reasons:</p>
<ol type="1">
<li>
<p>You should never trust a setup program to properly configure your computer. If you use
a setup program, you should review the configuration yourself.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If you are still learning Slackware and Linux system management, viewing a working
configuration can be helpful. You'll at least know what the configuration should look
like. This will allow you to correct problems due to misconfiguration of the system at a
later date.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
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<div class="SECT1">
<h1 class="SECT1"><a id="PACKAGE-MANAGEMENT-MAKING-PACKAGES"
name="PACKAGE-MANAGEMENT-MAKING-PACKAGES">18.3 Making Packages</a></h1>
<p>Making Slackware packages can be either easy or difficult. There is no specific method
for building a package. The only requirement is that the package be a tar gzipped file
and if there is a postinstallation script, it must be <tt
class="FILENAME">/install/doinst.sh</tt>.</p>
<p>If you are interested in making packages for your system or for a network that you
manage, you should have a look at the various build scripts in the Slackware source tree.
There are several methods we use for making packages.</p>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="PACKAGE-MANAGEMENT-EXPLODEPKG"
name="PACKAGE-MANAGEMENT-EXPLODEPKG">18.3.1 <tt class="COMMAND">explodepkg</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">explodepkg</tt>(8) will do the same thing that <tt
class="COMMAND">installpkg</tt> does to extract the package, but it doesn't actually
install it and it doesn't record it in the packages database. It simply extracts it to
the current directory.</p>
<p>If you look at the Slackware source tree, you will see how we use this command for
&#8220;framework&#8221; packages. These packages contain a skeleton of what the final
package will look like. They hold all the necessary filenames (zero-length), permissions,
and ownerships. The build script will cat the package contents from the source directory
to the package build directory.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="PACKAGE-MANAGEMENT-MAKEPKG"
name="PACKAGE-MANAGEMENT-MAKEPKG">18.3.2 <tt class="COMMAND">makepkg</tt></a></h2>
<p><tt class="COMMAND">makepkg</tt>(8) will package up the current directory into a valid
Slackware package. It will search the tree for any symbolic links and add a creation
block to the postinstallation script for creating them during the package install. It
also warns of any zero-length files in the package tree.</p>
<p>This command is typically run after you have created your package tree.</p>
</div>
<div class="SECT2">
<h2 class="SECT2"><a id="PACKAGE-MANAGEMENT-SLACKBUILD-SCRIPTS"
name="PACKAGE-MANAGEMENT-SLACKBUILD-SCRIPTS">18.3.3 SlackBuild Scripts</a></h2>
<p>Slackware packages are built in many different ways by necessity. Not all software
packages are written by their programmers to compile the same way. Many have compile time
options that are not all included in the packages Slackware uses. Perhaps you need some
of this functionality; you'll need to compile your own package then. Fortunately for many
Slackware packages, you can find SlackBuild scripts in the package's source code.</p>
<p>So what is a SlackBuild script? SlackBuild scripts are executable shell scripts that
you run as <tt class="USERNAME">root</tt> to configure, compile, and create Slackware
packages. You can freely modify these scripts in the source directory and run them to
create your own versions of the default Slackware packages.</p>
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